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Introductory Chemistry - 1st Canadian Edition: Atomic Theory

Introductory Chemistry - 1st Canadian Edition
Atomic Theory
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table of contents
  1. Cover
  2. Title Page
  3. Copyright
  4. Table Of Contents
  5. Acknowledgments
  6. Dedication
  7. About BCcampus Open Education
  8. Chapter 1. What is Chemistry
    1. Some Basic Definitions
    2. Chemistry as a Science
  9. Chapter 2. Measurements
    1. Expressing Numbers
    2. Significant Figures
    3. Converting Units
    4. Other Units: Temperature and Density
    5. Expressing Units
    6. End-of-Chapter Material
  10. Chapter 3. Atoms, Molecules, and Ions
    1. Acids
    2. Ions and Ionic Compounds
    3. Masses of Atoms and Molecules
    4. Molecules and Chemical Nomenclature
    5. Atomic Theory
    6. End-of-Chapter Material
  11. Chapter 4. Chemical Reactions and Equations
    1. The Chemical Equation
    2. Types of Chemical Reactions: Single- and Double-Displacement Reactions
    3. Ionic Equations: A Closer Look
    4. Composition, Decomposition, and Combustion Reactions
    5. Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
    6. Neutralization Reactions
    7. End-of-Chapter Material
  12. Chapter 5. Stoichiometry and the Mole
    1. Stoichiometry
    2. The Mole
    3. Mole-Mass and Mass-Mass Calculations
    4. Limiting Reagents
    5. The Mole in Chemical Reactions
    6. Yields
    7. End-of-Chapter Material
  13. Chapter 6. Gases
    1. Pressure
    2. Gas Laws
    3. Other Gas Laws
    4. The Ideal Gas Law and Some Applications
    5. Gas Mixtures
    6. Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases
    7. Molecular Effusion and Diffusion
    8. Real Gases
    9. End-of-Chapter Material
  14. Chapter 7. Energy and Chemistry
    1. Formation Reactions
    2. Energy
    3. Stoichiometry Calculations Using Enthalpy
    4. Enthalpy and Chemical Reactions
    5. Work and Heat
    6. Hess’s Law
    7. End-of-Chapter Material
  15. Chapter 8. Electronic Structure
    1. Light
    2. Quantum Numbers for Electrons
    3. Organization of Electrons in Atoms
    4. Electronic Structure and the Periodic Table
    5. Periodic Trends
    6. End-of-Chapter Material
  16. Chapter 9. Chemical Bonds
    1. Lewis Electron Dot Diagrams
    2. Electron Transfer: Ionic Bonds
    3. Covalent Bonds
    4. Other Aspects of Covalent Bonds
    5. Violations of the Octet Rule
    6. Molecular Shapes and Polarity
    7. Valence Bond Theory and Hybrid Orbitals
    8. Molecular Orbitals
    9. End-of-Chapter Material
  17. Chapter 10. Solids and Liquids
    1. Properties of Liquids
    2. Solids
    3. Phase Transitions: Melting, Boiling, and Subliming
    4. Intermolecular Forces
    5. End-of-Chapter Material
  18. Chapter 11. Solutions
    1. Colligative Properties of Solutions
    2. Concentrations as Conversion Factors
    3. Quantitative Units of Concentration
    4. Colligative Properties of Ionic Solutes
    5. Some Definitions
    6. Dilutions and Concentrations
    7. End-of-Chapter Material
  19. Chapter 12. Acids and Bases
    1. Acid-Base Titrations
    2. Strong and Weak Acids and Bases and Their Salts
    3. Brønsted-Lowry Acids and Bases
    4. Arrhenius Acids and Bases
    5. Autoionization of Water
    6. Buffers
    7. The pH Scale
    8. End-of-Chapter Material
  20. Chapter 13. Chemical Equilibrium
    1. Chemical Equilibrium
    2. The Equilibrium Constant
    3. Shifting Equilibria: Le Chatelier’s Principle
    4. Calculating Equilibrium Constant Values
    5. Some Special Types of Equilibria
    6. End-of-Chapter Material
  21. Chapter 14. Oxidation and Reduction
    1. Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
    2. Balancing Redox Reactions
    3. Applications of Redox Reactions: Voltaic Cells
    4. Electrolysis
    5. End-of-Chapter Material
  22. Chapter 15. Nuclear Chemistry
    1. Units of Radioactivity
    2. Uses of Radioactive Isotopes
    3. Half-Life
    4. Radioactivity
    5. Nuclear Energy
    6. End-of-Chapter Material
  23. Chapter 16. Organic Chemistry
    1. Hydrocarbons
    2. Branched Hydrocarbons
    3. Alkyl Halides and Alcohols
    4. Other Oxygen-Containing Functional Groups
    5. Other Functional Groups
    6. Polymers
    7. End-of-Chapter Material
  24. Chapter 17. Kinetics
    1. Factors that Affect the Rate of Reactions
    2. Reaction Rates
    3. Rate Laws
    4. Concentration–Time Relationships: Integrated Rate Laws
    5. Activation Energy and the Arrhenius Equation
    6. Reaction Mechanisms
    7. Catalysis
    8. End-of-Chapter Material
  25. Chapter 18. Chemical Thermodynamics
    1. Spontaneous Change
    2. Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics
    3. Measuring Entropy and Entropy Changes
    4. Gibbs Free Energy
    5. Spontaneity: Free Energy and Temperature
    6. Free Energy under Nonstandard Conditions
    7. End-of-Chapter Material
  26. Appendix A: Periodic Table of the Elements
  27. Appendix B: Selected Acid Dissociation Constants at 25°C
  28. Appendix C: Solubility Constants for Compounds at 25°C
  29. Appendix D: Standard Thermodynamic Quantities for Chemical Substances at 25°C
  30. Appendix E: Standard Reduction Potentials by Value
  31. Glossary
  32. About the Authors
  33. Versioning History

Atomic Theory

Learning Objectives

  1. State the modern atomic theory.
  2. Learn how atoms are constructed.

The smallest piece of an element that maintains the identity of that element is called an atom. Individual atoms are extremely small. It would take about fifty million atoms in a row to make a line that is 1 cm long. The period at the end of a printed sentence has several million atoms in it. Atoms are so small that it is difficult to believe that all matter is made from atoms—but it is.

The concept that atoms play a fundamental role in chemistry is formalized by the modern atomic theory, first stated by John Dalton, an English scientist, in 1808. It consists of three parts:

  1. All matter is composed of atoms.
  2. Atoms of the same element are the same; atoms of different elements are different.
  3. Atoms combine in whole-number ratios to form compounds.

These concepts form the basis of chemistry.

Although the word atom comes from a Greek word that means “indivisible,” we understand now that atoms themselves are composed of smaller parts called subatomic particles. The first part to be discovered was the electron, a tiny subatomic particle with a negative charge. It is often represented as e−, with the right superscript showing the negative charge. Later, two larger particles were discovered. The proton is a more massive (but still tiny) subatomic particle with a positive charge, represented as p+. The neutron is a subatomic particle with about the same mass as a proton but no charge. It is represented as either n or n0. We now know that all atoms of all elements are composed of electrons, protons, and (with one exception) neutrons. Table 3.7 “Properties of the Three Subatomic Particles” summarizes the properties of these three subatomic particles.

Table 3.7 Properties of the Three Subatomic Particles
NameSymbolMass (approx. in kg)Charge
Protonp+1.6 × 10−271+
Neutronn, n01.6 × 10−27none
Electrone−9.1 × 10−311−

How are these particles arranged in atoms? They are not arranged at random. Experiments by Ernest Rutherford in England in the 1910s pointed to a nuclear model of the atom. The relatively massive protons and neutrons are collected in the centre of an atom, in a region called the nucleus of the atom (plural nuclei). The electrons are outside the nucleus and spend their time orbiting in space about the nucleus. (See Figure 3.4 “The Structure of the Atom”.)

Protons and neutrons sit in the centre of an atom, or the nucleus. Electrons orbit the nucleus.
Figure 3.4 “The Structure of the Atom.” Atoms have protons and neutrons in the centre, making the nucleus, while the electrons orbit the nucleus.

The modern atomic theory states that atoms of one element are the same, while atoms of different elements are different. What makes atoms of different elements different? The fundamental characteristic that all atoms of the same element share is the number of protons. All atoms of hydrogen have one and only one proton in the nucleus; all atoms of iron have 26 protons in the nucleus. This number of protons is so important to the identity of an atom that it is called the atomic number of the element. Thus, hydrogen has an atomic number of 1, while iron has an atomic number of 26. Each element has its own characteristic atomic number.

Atoms of the same element can have different numbers of neutrons, however. Atoms of the same element (i.e., atoms with the same number of protons) with different numbers of neutrons are called isotopes. Most naturally occurring elements exist as isotopes. For example, most hydrogen atoms have a single proton in their nucleus. However, a small number (about one in a million) of hydrogen atoms have a proton and a neutron in their nuclei. This particular isotope of hydrogen is called deuterium. A very rare form of hydrogen has one proton and two neutrons in the nucleus; this isotope of hydrogen is called tritium. The sum of the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus is called the mass number of the isotope.

Neutral atoms have the same number of electrons as they have protons, so their overall charge is zero. However, as we shall see later, this will not always be the case.

Example 3.9

Problems

  1. The most common carbon atoms have six protons and six neutrons in their nuclei. What are the atomic number and the mass number of these carbon atoms?
  2. An isotope of uranium has an atomic number of 92 and a mass number of 235. What are the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of this atom?

Solutions

  1. If a carbon atom has six protons in its nucleus, its atomic number is 6. If it also has six neutrons in the nucleus, then the mass number is 6 + 6, or 12.
  2. If the atomic number of uranium is 92, then that is the number of protons in the nucleus. Because the mass number is 235, then the number of neutrons in the nucleus is 235 − 92, or 143.

Test Yourself

The number of protons in the nucleus of a tin atom is 50, while the number of neutrons in the nucleus is 68. What are the atomic number and the mass number of this isotope?

Answer

Atomic number = 50, mass number = 118

When referring to an atom, we simply use the element’s name: the term sodium refers to the element as well as an atom of sodium. But it can be unwieldy to use the name of elements all the time. Instead, chemistry defines a symbol for each element. The atomic symbol is a one- or two-letter abbreviation of the name of the element. By convention, the first letter of an element’s symbol is always capitalized, while the second letter (if present) is lowercase. Thus, the symbol for hydrogen is H, the symbol for sodium is Na, and the symbol for nickel is Ni. Most symbols come from the English name of the element, although some symbols come from an element’s Latin name. (The symbol for sodium, Na, comes from its Latin name, natrium.) Table 3.8 “Names and Symbols of Common Elements” lists some common elements and their symbols. You should memorize the symbols in Table 3.8 “Names and Symbols of Common Elements”, as this is how we will be representing elements throughout chemistry.

Table 3.8 Names and Symbols of Common Elements
Element NameSymbol
AluminumAl
ArgonAr
ArsenicAs
BariumBa
BerylliumBe
BismuthBi
BoronB
BromineBr
CalciumCa
CarbonC
ChlorineCl
ChromiumCr
CobaltCo
CopperCu
FluorineF
GalliumGa
GermaniumGe
GoldAu
HeliumHe
HydrogenH
IodineI
IridiumIr
IronFe
KryptonKr
LeadPb
LithiumLi
MagnesiumMg
ManganeseMn
MercuryHg
MolybdenumMo
NeonNe
NickelNi
NitrogenN
OxygenO
PalladiumPd
PhosphorusP
PlatinumPt
PotassiumK
RadiumRa
RadonRn
RubidiumRb
ScandiumSc
SeleniumSe
SiliconSi
SilverAg
SodiumNa
StrontiumSr
SulfurS
TantalumTa
TinSn
TitaniumTi
TungstenW
UraniumU
XenonXe
ZincZn
ZirconiumZr

The elements are grouped together in a special chart called the periodic table. A simple periodic table is shown in Figure 3.5 “A Simple Periodic Table”, while a more extensive one is presented in “Appendix A: Periodic Table of the Elements“. The elements on the periodic table are listed in order of ascending atomic number. The periodic table has a special shape that will become important to us when we consider the organization of electrons in atoms (see Chapter 8 “Electronic Structure”). One immediate use of the periodic table helps us identify metals and nonmetals. Nonmetals are in the upper right corner of the periodic table, on one side of the heavy line splitting the right-hand part of the chart. All other elements are metals.

The periodic table.
Figure 3.5 “A Simple Periodic Table.” View an accessible periodic table online.

There is an easy way to represent isotopes using the atomic symbols. We use the construction:

\ce{^{A}_{Z}X}

where X is the symbol of the element, A is the mass number, and Z is the atomic number. Thus, for the isotope of carbon that has 6 protons and 6 neutrons, the symbol is:

\ce{^{12}_{6}C}

where C is the symbol for the element, 6 represents the atomic number, and 12 represents the mass number.

Example 3.10

Problems

  1. What is the symbol for an isotope of uranium that has an atomic number of 92 and a mass number of 235?
  2. How many protons and neutrons are in \ce{^{56}_{26}Fe}?

Solutions

  1. The symbol for this isotope is \ce{^{235}_{92}U}.
  2. This iron atom has 26 protons and 56 − 26 = 30 neutrons.

Test Yourself

How many protons are in \ce{^{23}_{11}Na}?

Answer

11 protons

It is also common to state the mass number after the name of an element to indicate a particular isotope. Carbon-12 represents an isotope of carbon with 6 protons and 6 neutrons, while uranium-238 is an isotope of uranium that has 146 neutrons.

Key Takeaways

  • Chemistry is based on the modern atomic theory, which states that all matter is composed of atoms.
  • Atoms themselves are composed of protons, neutrons, and electrons.
  • Each element has its own atomic number, which is equal to the number of protons in its nucleus.
  • Isotopes of an element contain different numbers of neutrons.
  • Elements are represented by an atomic symbol.
  • The periodic table is a chart that organizes all the elements.

Exercises

Questions

  1. List the three statements that make up the modern atomic theory.
  2. Explain how atoms are composed.
  3. Which is larger, a proton or an electron?
  4. Which is larger, a neutron or an electron?
  5. What are the charges for each of the three subatomic particles?
  6. Where is most of the mass of an atom located?
  7. Sketch a diagram of a boron atom, which has five protons and six neutrons in its nucleus.
  8. Sketch a diagram of a helium atom, which has two protons and two neutrons in its nucleus.
  9. Define atomic number. What is the atomic number for a boron atom?
  10. What is the atomic number of helium?
  11. Define isotope and give an example.
  12. What is the difference between deuterium and tritium?
  13. Which pair represents isotopes?
    1. \ce{^{4}_{2}He}\) and \(\ce{^{3}_{2}He}
    2. \ce{^{56}_{26}Fe}\) and \(\ce{^{56}_{25}Mn}
    3. \ce{^{28}_{14}Si}\) and \(\ce{^{31}_{15}P}
  14. Which pair represents isotopes?
    1. \ce{^{40}_{20}Ca}\) and \(\ce{^{40}_{19}K}
    2. \ce{^{56}_{26}Fe}\) and \(\ce{^{58}_{26}Fe}
    3. \ce{^{238}_{92}U}\) and \(\ce{^{235}_{92}U}
  15. Give complete symbols of each atom, including the atomic number and the mass number.
    1. an oxygen atom with 8 protons and 8 neutrons
    2. a potassium atom with 19 protons and 20 neutrons
    3. a lithium atom with 3 protons and 4 neutrons
  16. Give complete symbols of each atom, including the atomic number and the mass number.
    1. a magnesium atom with 12 protons and 12 neutrons
    2. a magnesium atom with 12 protons and 13 neutrons
    3. a xenon atom with 54 protons and 77 neutrons
  17. Americium-241 is an isotope used in smoke detectors. What is the complete symbol for this isotope?
  18. Carbon-14 is an isotope used to perform radioactive dating tests on previously living material. What is the complete symbol for this isotope?
  19. Give atomic symbols for each element.
    1. sodium
    2. argon
    3. nitrogen
    4. radon
  20. Give atomic symbols for each element.
    1. silver
    2. gold
    3. mercury
    4. iodine
  21. Give the name of the element.
    1. Si
    2. Mn
    3. Fe
    4. Cr
  22. Give the name of the element.
    1. F
    2. Cl
    3. Br
    4. I

Answers

  1. All matter is composed of atoms; atoms of the same element are the same, and atoms of different elements are different; atoms combine in whole-number ratios to form compounds.
  1. A proton is larger than an electron.
  1. proton: 1+; electron: 1−; neutron: 0
  1. Protons and neutrons in a nucleus. Electrons orbit.
  1. The atomic number is the number of protons in a nucleus. Boron has an atomic number of five.
  1. Isotopes are atoms of the same element but with different numbers of neutrons. \ce{^{1}_{1}H} and \ce{^{2}_{1}H} are examples.
    1. isotopes
    2. not isotopes
    3. not isotopes
    1. \ce{^{16}_{8}O}
    2. \ce{^{39}_{19}K}
    3. \ce{^{7}_{3}Li}
  1. \ce{^{241}_{95}Am}
    1. Na
    2. Ar
    3. N
    4. Rn
    1. silicon
    2. manganese
    3. iron
    4. chromium

Media Attributions

Exercises

  • “Nucleus” by David W. Ball © CC BY-NC-SA (Attribution NonCommercial ShareAlike)

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Copyright © 2014

                                by Jessie A. Key

            Introductory Chemistry - 1st Canadian Edition by Jessie A. Key is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.
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