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Introductory Chemistry - 1st Canadian Edition: Chapter 8. Electronic Structure

Introductory Chemistry - 1st Canadian Edition
Chapter 8. Electronic Structure
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table of contents
  1. Cover
  2. Title Page
  3. Copyright
  4. Table Of Contents
  5. Acknowledgments
  6. Dedication
  7. About BCcampus Open Education
  8. Chapter 1. What is Chemistry
    1. Some Basic Definitions
    2. Chemistry as a Science
  9. Chapter 2. Measurements
    1. Expressing Numbers
    2. Significant Figures
    3. Converting Units
    4. Other Units: Temperature and Density
    5. Expressing Units
    6. End-of-Chapter Material
  10. Chapter 3. Atoms, Molecules, and Ions
    1. Acids
    2. Ions and Ionic Compounds
    3. Masses of Atoms and Molecules
    4. Molecules and Chemical Nomenclature
    5. Atomic Theory
    6. End-of-Chapter Material
  11. Chapter 4. Chemical Reactions and Equations
    1. The Chemical Equation
    2. Types of Chemical Reactions: Single- and Double-Displacement Reactions
    3. Ionic Equations: A Closer Look
    4. Composition, Decomposition, and Combustion Reactions
    5. Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
    6. Neutralization Reactions
    7. End-of-Chapter Material
  12. Chapter 5. Stoichiometry and the Mole
    1. Stoichiometry
    2. The Mole
    3. Mole-Mass and Mass-Mass Calculations
    4. Limiting Reagents
    5. The Mole in Chemical Reactions
    6. Yields
    7. End-of-Chapter Material
  13. Chapter 6. Gases
    1. Pressure
    2. Gas Laws
    3. Other Gas Laws
    4. The Ideal Gas Law and Some Applications
    5. Gas Mixtures
    6. Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases
    7. Molecular Effusion and Diffusion
    8. Real Gases
    9. End-of-Chapter Material
  14. Chapter 7. Energy and Chemistry
    1. Formation Reactions
    2. Energy
    3. Stoichiometry Calculations Using Enthalpy
    4. Enthalpy and Chemical Reactions
    5. Work and Heat
    6. Hess’s Law
    7. End-of-Chapter Material
  15. Chapter 8. Electronic Structure
    1. Light
    2. Quantum Numbers for Electrons
    3. Organization of Electrons in Atoms
    4. Electronic Structure and the Periodic Table
    5. Periodic Trends
    6. End-of-Chapter Material
  16. Chapter 9. Chemical Bonds
    1. Lewis Electron Dot Diagrams
    2. Electron Transfer: Ionic Bonds
    3. Covalent Bonds
    4. Other Aspects of Covalent Bonds
    5. Violations of the Octet Rule
    6. Molecular Shapes and Polarity
    7. Valence Bond Theory and Hybrid Orbitals
    8. Molecular Orbitals
    9. End-of-Chapter Material
  17. Chapter 10. Solids and Liquids
    1. Properties of Liquids
    2. Solids
    3. Phase Transitions: Melting, Boiling, and Subliming
    4. Intermolecular Forces
    5. End-of-Chapter Material
  18. Chapter 11. Solutions
    1. Colligative Properties of Solutions
    2. Concentrations as Conversion Factors
    3. Quantitative Units of Concentration
    4. Colligative Properties of Ionic Solutes
    5. Some Definitions
    6. Dilutions and Concentrations
    7. End-of-Chapter Material
  19. Chapter 12. Acids and Bases
    1. Acid-Base Titrations
    2. Strong and Weak Acids and Bases and Their Salts
    3. Brønsted-Lowry Acids and Bases
    4. Arrhenius Acids and Bases
    5. Autoionization of Water
    6. Buffers
    7. The pH Scale
    8. End-of-Chapter Material
  20. Chapter 13. Chemical Equilibrium
    1. Chemical Equilibrium
    2. The Equilibrium Constant
    3. Shifting Equilibria: Le Chatelier’s Principle
    4. Calculating Equilibrium Constant Values
    5. Some Special Types of Equilibria
    6. End-of-Chapter Material
  21. Chapter 14. Oxidation and Reduction
    1. Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
    2. Balancing Redox Reactions
    3. Applications of Redox Reactions: Voltaic Cells
    4. Electrolysis
    5. End-of-Chapter Material
  22. Chapter 15. Nuclear Chemistry
    1. Units of Radioactivity
    2. Uses of Radioactive Isotopes
    3. Half-Life
    4. Radioactivity
    5. Nuclear Energy
    6. End-of-Chapter Material
  23. Chapter 16. Organic Chemistry
    1. Hydrocarbons
    2. Branched Hydrocarbons
    3. Alkyl Halides and Alcohols
    4. Other Oxygen-Containing Functional Groups
    5. Other Functional Groups
    6. Polymers
    7. End-of-Chapter Material
  24. Chapter 17. Kinetics
    1. Factors that Affect the Rate of Reactions
    2. Reaction Rates
    3. Rate Laws
    4. Concentration–Time Relationships: Integrated Rate Laws
    5. Activation Energy and the Arrhenius Equation
    6. Reaction Mechanisms
    7. Catalysis
    8. End-of-Chapter Material
  25. Chapter 18. Chemical Thermodynamics
    1. Spontaneous Change
    2. Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics
    3. Measuring Entropy and Entropy Changes
    4. Gibbs Free Energy
    5. Spontaneity: Free Energy and Temperature
    6. Free Energy under Nonstandard Conditions
    7. End-of-Chapter Material
  26. Appendix A: Periodic Table of the Elements
  27. Appendix B: Selected Acid Dissociation Constants at 25°C
  28. Appendix C: Solubility Constants for Compounds at 25°C
  29. Appendix D: Standard Thermodynamic Quantities for Chemical Substances at 25°C
  30. Appendix E: Standard Reduction Potentials by Value
  31. Glossary
  32. About the Authors
  33. Versioning History

Chapter 8. Electronic Structure

Normal light microscopes can magnify objects up to about 1,500 times. Electron microscopes can magnify objects up to 1,000,000 times. Why can electron microscopes magnify images so much?

A microscope’s resolution depends on the wavelength of light used. The smaller the wavelength, the more a microscope can magnify. Light is a wave, and, as such, it has a wavelength associated with it. The wavelength of visible light, which is detected by the eyes, varies from about 700 nm to about 400 nm.

One of the startling conclusions about modern science is that electrons also act as waves. However, the wavelength of electrons is much, much shorter — about 0.5 to 1 nm. This allows electron microscopes to magnify 600–700 times more than light microscopes. This allows us to see even smaller features in a world that is invisible to the naked eye.

Atoms act the way they do because of their structure. We already know that atoms are composed of protons, neutrons, and electrons. Protons and neutrons are located in the nucleus, and electrons orbit around the nucleus. But we need to know the structural details to understand why atoms react the way they do.

Virtually everything we know about atoms ultimately comes from light. Before we can understand the composition of atoms (especially electrons), we need to understand the properties of light.

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Copyright © 2014

                                by Jessie A. Key

            Introductory Chemistry - 1st Canadian Edition by Jessie A. Key is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.
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