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Fundamentals of Anatomy and Physiology: 12.6 Accessory Organs in Digestion: the Liver, Pancreas and Gallbladder

Fundamentals of Anatomy and Physiology
12.6 Accessory Organs in Digestion: the Liver, Pancreas and Gallbladder
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table of contents
  1. Cover
  2. Title Page
  3. Copyright
  4. Table Of Contents
  5. About the Authors
  6. Acknowledgments
  7. Preface
  8. Levels of Organisation, Homeostasis and Nomenclature
    1. 1.1 Overview of Anatomy and Physiology
    2. 1.2 Structural Organisation of the Human Body
    3. 1.3 Homeostasis
    4. 1.4 Anatomical Terminology
  9. Cells and Reproduction
    1. 2.1 Synthesis of Biological Macromolecules
    2. 2.2 Carbohydrates
    3. 2.3 Lipids
    4. 2.4 Protein
    5. 2.5 Nucleic Acid
    6. 2.6 The Cell Membrane
    7. 2.7 The Cytoplasm and Cellular Organelles
    8. 2.8 The Nucleus and DNA Replication
    9. 2.9 Protein Synthesis
    10. 2.10 Cell Growth and Division
    11. 2.11 Cellular Differentiation
  10. Tissues, Organs, Systems
    1. 3.1 Types of Tissues
    2. 3.2 Epithelial Tissue
    3. 3.3 Connective Tissue Supports and Protects
    4. 3.4 Muscle Tissue and Motion
    5. 3.5 Nervous Tissue Mediates Perception and Response
    6. 3.6 Tissue Injury and Ageing
  11. Integumentary System
    1. 4.1 Layers of the Skin
    2. 4.2 Accessory Structures of the Skin
    3. 4.3 Functions of the Integumentary System
    4. 4.4 Diseases, Disorders and Injuries of the Integumentary System
  12. Blood
    1. 5.1 An Overview of Blood
    2. 5.2 Production of the Formed Elements
    3. 5.3 Erythrocytes
    4. 5.4 Leukocytes and Platelets
    5. 5.5 Haemostasis
    6. 5.6 Blood Typing
  13. Cardiovascular System
    1. 6.1 Heart Anatomy
    2. 6.2 Cardiac Muscle and Electrical Activity
    3. 6.3 Cardiac Cycle
    4. 6.4 Cardiac Physiology
    5. 6.5 Development of the Heart
    6. 6.6 Structure and Function of Blood Vessels
    7. 6.7 Blood Flow, Blood Pressure and Resistance
    8. 6.8 Capillary Exchange
    9. 6.9 Homeostatic Regulation of the Vascular System
    10. 6.10 Circulatory Pathways
    11. 6.11 Development of Blood Vessels and Foetal Circulation
  14. Lymphatic System and Immunity
    1. 7.1 Anatomy of the Lymphatic and Immune Systems
    2. 7.2 Barrier Defences and the Innate Immune Response
    3. 7.3 The Adaptive Immune Response: T Lymphocytes and their Functional Types
    4. 7.4 The Adaptive Immune Response: B-Lymhocytes and Antibodies
    5. 7.5 The Immune Response Against Pathogens
    6. 7.6 Diseases Associated with Depressed or Overactive Immune Responses
    7. 7.7 Transplantation and Cancer Immunology
  15. Respiratory System
    1. 8.1 Organs and Structures of the Respiratory System
    2. 8.2 The Lungs
    3. 8.3 The Process of Breathing
    4. 8.4 Gas Exchange
    5. 8.5 Transport of Gases
    6. 8.6 Modifications in Respiratory Functions
    7. 8.7 Embryonic Development of the Respiratory System
  16. Muscle System
    1. 9.1 Overview of Muscle Tissues
    2. 9.2 Skeletal Muscle
    3. 9.3 Muscle Fibre Contraction and Relaxation
    4. 9.4 Nervous System Control of Muscle Tension
    5. 9.5 Types of Muscle Fibres
    6. 9.6 Exercise and Muscle Performance
    7. 9.7 Cardiac Muscle Tissue
    8. 9.8 Smooth Muscle
    9. 9.9 Development and Regeneration of Muscle Tissue
  17. Skeletal System
    1. 10.1 The Functions of the Skeletal System
    2. 10.2 Bone Classification
    3. 10.3 Bone Structure
    4. 10.4 Bone Formation and Development
    5. 10.5 Fractures: Bone Repair
    6. 10.6 Exercise, Nutrition, Hormones and Bone Tissue
    7. 10.7 Calcium Homeostasis: Interactions of the Skeletal System and Other Organ Systems
    8. 10.8 Divisions of the Skeletal System
    9. 10.9 The Skull
    10. 10.10 The Vertebral Column
    11. 10.11 The Thoracic Cage
    12. 10.12 Embryonic Development of the Axial Skeleton
  18. Musculoskeletal System
    1. 11.1 The Pectoral Girdle
    2. 11.2 Bones of the Upper Limb
    3. 11.3 The Pelvic Girdle and Pelvis
    4. 11.4 Bones of the Lower Limb
    5. 11.5 Development of the Appendicular Skeleton
    6. 11.6 Classification of Joints
    7. 11.7 Fibrous Joints
    8. 11.8 Cartilaginous Joints
    9. 11.9 Synovial Joints
    10. 11.10 Types of Body Movements
    11. 11.11 Anatomy of Selected Synovial Joints
    12. 11.12 Development of Joints
  19. Digestive System
    1. 12.1 Overview of the Digestive System
    2. 12.2 Digestive System Processes and Regulation
    3. 12.3 The Mouth, Pharynx and Oesophagus
    4. 12.4 The Stomach
    5. 12.5 The Small and Large Intestines
    6. 12.6 Accessory Organs in Digestion: the Liver, Pancreas and Gallbladder
    7. 12.7 Chemical Digestion and Absorption
  20. Nervous System
    1. 13.1 Basic Structure and Function of the Nervous System
    2. 13.2 Nervous Tissue
    3. 13.3 The Function of Nervous Tissue
    4. 13.4 The Action Potential
    5. 13.5 Communication between Neurons
    6. 13.6 The Embyrologic Perspective
    7. 13.7 The Central Nervous System
    8. 13.8 Circulation and the Central Nervous System
    9. 13.9 The Peripheral Nervous System
    10. 13.10 Sensory Perception
    11. 13.11 Central Processing
    12. 13.12 Motor Responses
  21. Endocrine System
    1. 14.1 An Overview of the Endocrine System
    2. 14.2 Hormones
    3. 14.3 The Pituitary Gland and Hypothalamus
    4. 14.4 The Thyroid Gland
    5. 14.5 The Parathyroid Glands
    6. 14.6 The Adrenal Glands
    7. 14.7 The Pineal Gland
    8. 14.8 Gonadal and Placental Hormones
    9. 14.9 The Endocrine Pancreas
    10. 14.10 Organs with Secondary Endocrine Functions
    11. 14.11 Development and Ageing of the Endocrine System
  22. Reproductive System
    1. 15.1 Anatomy and Physiology of the Male Reproductive System
    2. 15.2 Anatomy and Physiology of the Female Reproductive System
    3. 15.3 Development of the Male and Female Reproductive Systems
  23. Pregnancy and Human Development
    1. 16.1 Fertilisation
    2. 16.2 Embryonic Development
    3. 16.3 Foetal Development
  24. Urinary System
    1. 17.1 Physical Characteristics of Urine
    2. 17.2 Gross Anatomy of Urine Transport
    3. 17.3 Gross Anatomy of the Kidney
    4. 17.4 Microscopic Anatomy of the Kidney
    5. 17.5 Physiology of Urine Formation
    6. 17.6 Tubular Reabsorption
    7. 17.7 Regulation of Renal Blood Flow
    8. 17.8 Endocrine Regulation of Kidney Function
    9. 17.9 Regulation of Fluid Volume and Composition
    10. 17.10 The Urinary System and Homeostasis
    11. 17.11 Body Fluids and Fluid Compartments
    12. 17.12 Water Balance
    13. 17.13 Electrolyte Balance
    14. 17.14 Acid-Base Balance
    15. 17.15 Disorders of Acid-Base Balance
  25. Appendix A: Unit Measurements and Calculations
  26. Appendix B: Chemical Abbreviations
  27. Glossary
  28. Bibliography

12.6 Accessory Organs in Digestion: the Liver, Pancreas and Gallbladder

Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

  • State the main digestive roles of the liver, pancreas and gallbladder
  • Identify three main features of liver histology that are critical to its function
  • Discuss the composition and function of bile
  • Identify the major types of enzymes and buffers present in pancreatic secretion

Chemical digestion in the small intestine relies on the activities of three accessory digestive organs: the liver, pancreas, and gallbladder (Figure 12.6.1). The digestive role of the liver is to produce bile and export it to the duodenum. The gallbladder primarily stores, concentrates and releases bile. The pancreas produces pancreatic secretion, which contains digestive enzymes and bicarbonate ions and delivers it to the duodenum.

Diagram of Accessory organs
Figure 12.6.1. Accessory organs. The liver, pancreas, and gallbladder are considered accessory digestive organs, but their roles in the digestive system are vital.

The Liver

The liver is the largest gland in the body, weighing about 1.4 kilograms (three pounds) in an adult. It is also one of the most important organs. In addition to being an accessory digestive organ, it plays several roles in metabolism and regulation. The liver lies inferior to the diaphragm in the right upper quadrant of the abdominal cavity and receives protection from the surrounding ribs.

The liver is divided into two primary lobes: a large right lobe and a much smaller left lobe. In the right lobe, some anatomists also identify an inferior quadrate lobe and a posterior caudate lobe, which are defined by internal features. The liver is connected to the abdominal wall and diaphragm by five peritoneal folds referred to as ligaments. These are the falciform ligament, the coronary ligament, two lateral ligaments, and the ligamentum teres hepatis. The falciform ligament and ligamentum teres hepatis are remnants of the umbilical vein and separate the right and left lobes anteriorly. The lesser omentum tethers the liver to the lesser curvature of the stomach.

The porta hepatis (“gate to the liver”) is where the hepatic artery and hepatic portal vein enter the liver. These two vessels, along with the common hepatic duct, run behind the lateral border of the lesser omentum on the way to their destinations. As shown in Figure 12.6.2, the hepatic artery delivers oxygenated blood from the heart to the liver. The hepatic portal vein delivers partially deoxygenated blood containing nutrients absorbed from the small intestine and supplies more oxygen to the liver than do the much smaller hepatic arteries. In addition to nutrients, drugs and toxins are also absorbed. After processing the bloodborne nutrients and toxins, the liver releases nutrients needed by other cells back into the blood, which drains into the central vein and then through the hepatic vein to the inferior vena cava. With this hepatic portal circulation, all blood from the gastrointestinal tract passes through the liver. This explains why the liver is the most common site for the metastasis of cancers that originate in the gastrointestinal tract.

Microscopic anatomy of the liver
Figure 12.6.2. Microscopic anatomy of the liver. The liver receives oxygenated blood from the hepatic artery and nutrient-rich deoxygenated blood from the hepatic portal vein.

Histology

The liver has three main components: hepatocytes, bile canaliculi, and hepatic sinusoids. A hepatocyte is the liver’s main cell type, accounting for around 80 percent of the liver’s volume. These cells play a role in a wide variety of secretory, metabolic, and endocrine functions. Plates of hepatocytes called hepatic laminae radiate outward from the portal vein in each hepatic lobule.

Between adjacent hepatocytes, grooves in the cell membranes provide room for each bile canaliculus (plural = canaliculi). These small ducts accumulate the bile produced by hepatocytes. From here, bile flows first into bile ductules and then into bile ducts. The bile ducts unite to form the larger right and left hepatic ducts, which themselves merge and exit the liver as the common hepatic duct. This duct then joins with the cystic duct from the gallbladder, forming the common bile duct through which bile flows into the small intestine.

A hepatic sinusoid is an open, porous blood space formed by fenestrated capillaries from nutrient-rich hepatic portal veins and oxygen-rich hepatic arteries. Hepatocytes are tightly packed around the fenestrated endothelium of these spaces, giving them easy access to the blood. From their central position, hepatocytes process the nutrients, toxins, and waste materials carried by the blood. Materials such as bilirubin are processed and excreted into the bile canaliculi. Other materials including proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates are processed and secreted into the sinusoids or just stored in the cells until called upon. The hepatic sinusoids combine and send blood to a central vein. Blood then flows through a hepatic vein into the inferior vena cava. This means that blood and bile flow in opposite directions. The hepatic sinusoids also contain star-shaped reticuloendothelial cells (Kupffer cells), phagocytes that remove dead red and white blood cells, bacteria, and other foreign material that enter the sinusoids. The portal triad is a distinctive arrangement around the perimeter of hepatic lobules, consisting of three basic structures: a bile duct, a hepatic artery branch, and a hepatic portal vein branch.

Bile

Recall that lipids are hydrophobic, that is, they do not dissolve in water. Thus, before they can be digested in the watery environment of the small intestine, large lipid globules must be broken down into smaller lipid globules, a process called emulsification. Bile is a mixture secreted by the liver to accomplish the emulsification of lipids in the small intestine.

Hepatocytes secrete about one litre of bile each day. A yellow-brown or yellow-green alkaline solution (pH 7.6 to 8.6), bile is a mixture of water, bile salts, bile pigments, phospholipids (such as lecithin), electrolytes, cholesterol, and triglycerides. The components most critical to emulsification are bile salts and phospholipids, which have a nonpolar (hydrophobic) region as well as a polar (hydrophilic) region. The hydrophobic region interacts with the large lipid molecules, whereas the hydrophilic region interacts with the watery chyme in the intestine. This results in the large lipid globules being pulled apart into many tiny lipid fragments of about 1 µm in diameter. This change dramatically increases the surface area available for lipid-digesting enzyme activity. This is the same way dish soap works on fats mixed with water.

Bile salts act as emulsifying agents, so they are also important for the absorption of digested lipids. While most constituents of bile are eliminated in faeces, bile salts are reclaimed by the enterohepatic circulation. Once bile salts reach the ileum, they are absorbed and returned to the liver in the hepatic portal blood. The hepatocytes then excrete the bile salts into newly formed bile. Thus, this precious resource is recycled.

Bilirubin, the main bile pigment, is a waste product produced when the spleen removes old or damaged red blood cells from the circulation. These breakdown products, including proteins, iron, and toxic bilirubin, are transported to the liver via the splenic vein of the hepatic portal system. In the liver, proteins and iron are recycled, whereas bilirubin is excreted in the bile. It accounts for the green colour of bile. Bilirubin is eventually transformed by intestinal bacteria into stercobilin, a brown pigment that gives your stool its characteristic colour! In some disease states, bile does not enter the intestine, resulting in white (‘acholic’) stool with a high fat content, since virtually no fats are broken down or absorbed.

Hepatocytes work non-stop, but bile production increases when fatty chyme enters the duodenum and stimulates the secretion of the gut hormone secretin. Between meals, bile is produced but conserved. The valve-like hepatopancreatic ampulla closes, allowing bile to divert to the gallbladder, where it is concentrated and stored until the next meal.

The Pancreas

The soft, oblong, glandular pancreas lies transversely in the retroperitoneum behind the stomach. Its head is nestled into the “c-shaped” curvature of the duodenum with the body extending to the left about 15.2 cm and ending as a tapering tail in the hilum of the spleen. It is a curious mix of exocrine (secreting digestive enzymes) and endocrine (releasing hormones into the blood) functions (Figure 12.6.3).

Exocrine and endocrine pancreas
Figure 12.6.3. Exocrine and endocrine pancreas. The pancreas has a head, a body, and a tail. It delivers pancreatic secretion to the duodenum through the pancreatic duct.

The exocrine part of the pancreas arises as little grape-like cell clusters, each called an acinus (plural = acini), located at the terminal ends of pancreatic ducts. These acinar cells secrete enzyme-rich pancreatic secretion into tiny merging ducts that form two dominant ducts. The larger duct fuses with the common bile duct (carrying bile from the liver and gallbladder) just before entering the duodenum via a common opening (the hepatopancreatic ampulla). The smooth muscle sphincter of the hepatopancreatic ampulla controls the release of pancreatic secretion and bile into the small intestine. The second and smaller pancreatic duct, the accessory duct (duct of Santorini), runs from the pancreas directly into the duodenum, approximately 2.5 cm above the hepatopancreatic ampulla. When present, it is a persistent remnant of pancreatic development.

Scattered through the sea of exocrine acini are small islands of endocrine cells, the islets of Langerhans. These vital cells produce the hormones pancreatic polypeptide, insulin, glucagon, and somatostatin among others.

Pancreatic Secretion

The pancreas produces over a litre of pancreatic secretion each day. Unlike bile, it is clear and composed mostly of water along with some salts, sodium bicarbonate, and several digestive enzymes. Sodium bicarbonate is responsible for the slight alkalinity of pancreatic secretion (pH 7.1 to 8.2), which serves to buffer the acidic gastric secretion in chyme, inactivate pepsin from the stomach, and create an optimal environment for the activity of pH-sensitive digestive enzymes in the small intestine. Pancreatic enzymes are active in the digestion of sugars, proteins, and fats.

The pancreas produces protein-digesting enzymes in their inactive forms. These enzymes are activated in the duodenum. If produced in an active form, they would digest the pancreas (which is exactly what occurs in the disease, pancreatitis). The intestinal brush border enzyme enteropeptidase stimulates the activation of trypsin from trypsinogen of the pancreas, which in turn changes the pancreatic enzymes procarboxypeptidase and chymotrypsinogen into their active forms, carboxypeptidase and chymotrypsin.

The enzymes that digest starch (amylase), fat (lipase), and nucleic acids (nuclease) are secreted in their active forms, since they do not attack the pancreas as do the protein-digesting enzymes.

Regulation of pancreatic secretion is the job of hormones and the parasympathetic nervous system. The entry of acidic chyme into the duodenum stimulates the release of secretin, which in turn causes the duct cells to release bicarbonate-rich pancreatic secretion. The presence of proteins and fats in the duodenum stimulates the secretion of CCK, which then stimulates the acini to secrete enzyme-rich pancreatic secretion and enhances the activity of secretin. Parasympathetic regulation occurs during the cephalic and gastric phases of gastric secretion, when vagal stimulation prompts the secretion of pancreatic secretion.

Usually, the pancreas secretes just enough bicarbonate to counterbalance the amount of HCl produced in the stomach. Hydrogen ions enter the blood when bicarbonate is secreted by the pancreas. Thus, the acidic blood draining from the pancreas neutralises the alkaline blood draining from the stomach, maintaining the pH of the venous blood that flows to the liver.

The Gallbladder

The gallbladder is 8–10 cm long and is nested in a shallow area on the posterior aspect of the right lobe of the liver. This muscular sac stores, concentrates, and, when stimulated, propels the bile into the duodenum via the common bile duct. It is divided into three regions. The fundus is the widest portion and tapers medially into the body, which in turn narrows to become the neck. The neck angles slightly superiorly as it approaches the hepatic duct. The cystic duct is 1–2 cm long and turns inferiorly as it bridges the neck and hepatic duct.

The simple columnar epithelium of the gallbladder mucosa is organised in rugae, like those of the stomach. There is no submucosa in the gallbladder wall. The wall’s middle, muscular coat is made of smooth muscle fibres. When these fibres contract, the gallbladder’s contents are ejected through the cystic duct and into the bile duct (Figure 12.6.4). Visceral peritoneum reflected from the liver capsule holds the gallbladder against the liver and forms the outer coat of the gallbladder. The gallbladder’s mucosa absorbs water and ions from bile, concentrating it by up to 10-fold.

Diagram of gallbladder
Figure 12.6.4. Gallbladder. The gallbladder stores and concentrates bile and releases it into the two-way cystic duct when it is needed by the small intestine.

Section Review

Chemical digestion in the small intestine cannot occur without the help of the liver and pancreas. The liver produces bile and delivers it to the common hepatic duct. Bile contains bile salts and phospholipids, which emulsify large lipid globules into tiny lipid droplets, a necessary step in lipid digestion and absorption. The gallbladder stores and concentrates bile, releasing it when it is needed by the small intestine.

The pancreas produces the enzyme- and bicarbonate-rich pancreatic secretion and delivers it to the small intestine through ducts. Pancreatic secretion buffers the acidic gastric secretion in chyme, inactivates pepsin from the stomach, and enables the optimal functioning of digestive enzymes in the small intestine.

Review Questions

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Critical Thinking Questions

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12.7 Chemical Digestion and Absorption
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