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Fundamentals of Anatomy and Physiology: 2.5 Nucleic Acid

Fundamentals of Anatomy and Physiology
2.5 Nucleic Acid
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table of contents
  1. Cover
  2. Title Page
  3. Copyright
  4. Table Of Contents
  5. About the Authors
  6. Acknowledgments
  7. Preface
  8. Levels of Organisation, Homeostasis and Nomenclature
    1. 1.1 Overview of Anatomy and Physiology
    2. 1.2 Structural Organisation of the Human Body
    3. 1.3 Homeostasis
    4. 1.4 Anatomical Terminology
  9. Cells and Reproduction
    1. 2.1 Synthesis of Biological Macromolecules
    2. 2.2 Carbohydrates
    3. 2.3 Lipids
    4. 2.4 Protein
    5. 2.5 Nucleic Acid
    6. 2.6 The Cell Membrane
    7. 2.7 The Cytoplasm and Cellular Organelles
    8. 2.8 The Nucleus and DNA Replication
    9. 2.9 Protein Synthesis
    10. 2.10 Cell Growth and Division
    11. 2.11 Cellular Differentiation
  10. Tissues, Organs, Systems
    1. 3.1 Types of Tissues
    2. 3.2 Epithelial Tissue
    3. 3.3 Connective Tissue Supports and Protects
    4. 3.4 Muscle Tissue and Motion
    5. 3.5 Nervous Tissue Mediates Perception and Response
    6. 3.6 Tissue Injury and Ageing
  11. Integumentary System
    1. 4.1 Layers of the Skin
    2. 4.2 Accessory Structures of the Skin
    3. 4.3 Functions of the Integumentary System
    4. 4.4 Diseases, Disorders and Injuries of the Integumentary System
  12. Blood
    1. 5.1 An Overview of Blood
    2. 5.2 Production of the Formed Elements
    3. 5.3 Erythrocytes
    4. 5.4 Leukocytes and Platelets
    5. 5.5 Haemostasis
    6. 5.6 Blood Typing
  13. Cardiovascular System
    1. 6.1 Heart Anatomy
    2. 6.2 Cardiac Muscle and Electrical Activity
    3. 6.3 Cardiac Cycle
    4. 6.4 Cardiac Physiology
    5. 6.5 Development of the Heart
    6. 6.6 Structure and Function of Blood Vessels
    7. 6.7 Blood Flow, Blood Pressure and Resistance
    8. 6.8 Capillary Exchange
    9. 6.9 Homeostatic Regulation of the Vascular System
    10. 6.10 Circulatory Pathways
    11. 6.11 Development of Blood Vessels and Foetal Circulation
  14. Lymphatic System and Immunity
    1. 7.1 Anatomy of the Lymphatic and Immune Systems
    2. 7.2 Barrier Defences and the Innate Immune Response
    3. 7.3 The Adaptive Immune Response: T Lymphocytes and their Functional Types
    4. 7.4 The Adaptive Immune Response: B-Lymhocytes and Antibodies
    5. 7.5 The Immune Response Against Pathogens
    6. 7.6 Diseases Associated with Depressed or Overactive Immune Responses
    7. 7.7 Transplantation and Cancer Immunology
  15. Respiratory System
    1. 8.1 Organs and Structures of the Respiratory System
    2. 8.2 The Lungs
    3. 8.3 The Process of Breathing
    4. 8.4 Gas Exchange
    5. 8.5 Transport of Gases
    6. 8.6 Modifications in Respiratory Functions
    7. 8.7 Embryonic Development of the Respiratory System
  16. Muscle System
    1. 9.1 Overview of Muscle Tissues
    2. 9.2 Skeletal Muscle
    3. 9.3 Muscle Fibre Contraction and Relaxation
    4. 9.4 Nervous System Control of Muscle Tension
    5. 9.5 Types of Muscle Fibres
    6. 9.6 Exercise and Muscle Performance
    7. 9.7 Cardiac Muscle Tissue
    8. 9.8 Smooth Muscle
    9. 9.9 Development and Regeneration of Muscle Tissue
  17. Skeletal System
    1. 10.1 The Functions of the Skeletal System
    2. 10.2 Bone Classification
    3. 10.3 Bone Structure
    4. 10.4 Bone Formation and Development
    5. 10.5 Fractures: Bone Repair
    6. 10.6 Exercise, Nutrition, Hormones and Bone Tissue
    7. 10.7 Calcium Homeostasis: Interactions of the Skeletal System and Other Organ Systems
    8. 10.8 Divisions of the Skeletal System
    9. 10.9 The Skull
    10. 10.10 The Vertebral Column
    11. 10.11 The Thoracic Cage
    12. 10.12 Embryonic Development of the Axial Skeleton
  18. Musculoskeletal System
    1. 11.1 The Pectoral Girdle
    2. 11.2 Bones of the Upper Limb
    3. 11.3 The Pelvic Girdle and Pelvis
    4. 11.4 Bones of the Lower Limb
    5. 11.5 Development of the Appendicular Skeleton
    6. 11.6 Classification of Joints
    7. 11.7 Fibrous Joints
    8. 11.8 Cartilaginous Joints
    9. 11.9 Synovial Joints
    10. 11.10 Types of Body Movements
    11. 11.11 Anatomy of Selected Synovial Joints
    12. 11.12 Development of Joints
  19. Digestive System
    1. 12.1 Overview of the Digestive System
    2. 12.2 Digestive System Processes and Regulation
    3. 12.3 The Mouth, Pharynx and Oesophagus
    4. 12.4 The Stomach
    5. 12.5 The Small and Large Intestines
    6. 12.6 Accessory Organs in Digestion: the Liver, Pancreas and Gallbladder
    7. 12.7 Chemical Digestion and Absorption
  20. Nervous System
    1. 13.1 Basic Structure and Function of the Nervous System
    2. 13.2 Nervous Tissue
    3. 13.3 The Function of Nervous Tissue
    4. 13.4 The Action Potential
    5. 13.5 Communication between Neurons
    6. 13.6 The Embyrologic Perspective
    7. 13.7 The Central Nervous System
    8. 13.8 Circulation and the Central Nervous System
    9. 13.9 The Peripheral Nervous System
    10. 13.10 Sensory Perception
    11. 13.11 Central Processing
    12. 13.12 Motor Responses
  21. Endocrine System
    1. 14.1 An Overview of the Endocrine System
    2. 14.2 Hormones
    3. 14.3 The Pituitary Gland and Hypothalamus
    4. 14.4 The Thyroid Gland
    5. 14.5 The Parathyroid Glands
    6. 14.6 The Adrenal Glands
    7. 14.7 The Pineal Gland
    8. 14.8 Gonadal and Placental Hormones
    9. 14.9 The Endocrine Pancreas
    10. 14.10 Organs with Secondary Endocrine Functions
    11. 14.11 Development and Ageing of the Endocrine System
  22. Reproductive System
    1. 15.1 Anatomy and Physiology of the Male Reproductive System
    2. 15.2 Anatomy and Physiology of the Female Reproductive System
    3. 15.3 Development of the Male and Female Reproductive Systems
  23. Pregnancy and Human Development
    1. 16.1 Fertilisation
    2. 16.2 Embryonic Development
    3. 16.3 Foetal Development
  24. Urinary System
    1. 17.1 Physical Characteristics of Urine
    2. 17.2 Gross Anatomy of Urine Transport
    3. 17.3 Gross Anatomy of the Kidney
    4. 17.4 Microscopic Anatomy of the Kidney
    5. 17.5 Physiology of Urine Formation
    6. 17.6 Tubular Reabsorption
    7. 17.7 Regulation of Renal Blood Flow
    8. 17.8 Endocrine Regulation of Kidney Function
    9. 17.9 Regulation of Fluid Volume and Composition
    10. 17.10 The Urinary System and Homeostasis
    11. 17.11 Body Fluids and Fluid Compartments
    12. 17.12 Water Balance
    13. 17.13 Electrolyte Balance
    14. 17.14 Acid-Base Balance
    15. 17.15 Disorders of Acid-Base Balance
  25. Appendix A: Unit Measurements and Calculations
  26. Appendix B: Chemical Abbreviations
  27. Glossary
  28. Bibliography

2.5 Nucleic Acid

Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

  • Describe nucleic acids’ structure and define the two types of nucleic acids
  • Explain DNA structure and role
  • Explain RNA structure and roles

Nucleic acids are the most important macromolecules for the continuity of life. They carry the cell’s genetic blueprint and carry instructions for its functioning.

DNA and RNA

The two main types of nucleic acids are deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). DNA is the genetic material in all living organisms, ranging from single-celled bacteria to multicellular mammals. It is in the nucleus of eukaryotes and in the organelles, chloroplasts, and mitochondria. In prokaryotes, the DNA is not enclosed in a membranous envelope.

The cell’s entire genetic content is its genome, and the study of genomes is genomics. In eukaryotic cells but not in prokaryotes, DNA forms a complex with histone proteins to form chromatin, the substance of eukaryotic chromosomes. A chromosome may contain tens of thousands of genes. Many genes contain the information to make protein products. Other genes code for RNA products. DNA controls all the cellular activities by turning the genes “on” or “off.”

The other type of nucleic acid, RNA, is mostly involved in protein synthesis. The DNA molecules never leave the nucleus but instead use an intermediary to communicate with the rest of the cell. This intermediary is the messenger RNA (mRNA). Other types of RNA—like rRNA, tRNA, and microRNA—are involved in protein synthesis and its regulation.

DNA and RNA are comprised of monomers that scientists call nucleotides. The nucleotides combine with each other to form a polynucleotide, DNA or RNA. Three components comprise each nucleotide: a nitrogenous base, a pentose (five-carbon) sugar, and a phosphate group (Figure 2.5.1). Each nitrogenous base in a nucleotide is attached to a sugar molecule, which is attached to one or more phosphate groups.

Nucleotide components
Figure 2.5.1. Nucleotide components. Three components comprise a nucleotide: a nitrogenous base, a pentose sugar, and one or more phosphate groups. Carbon residues in the pentose are numbered 1′ through 5′ (the prime distinguishes these residues from those in the base, which are numbered without using a prime notation). The base is attached to the ribose’s 1′ position, and the phosphate is attached to the 5′ position. When a polynucleotide forms, the incoming nucleotide’s 5′ phosphate attaches to the 3′ hydroxyl group at the end of the growing chain. Two types of pentose are in nucleotides, deoxyribose (found in DNA) and ribose (found in RNA). Deoxyribose is similar in structure to ribose, but it has an H instead of an OH at the 2′ position. We can divide bases into two categories: purines and pyrimidines. Purines have a double ring structure, and pyrimidines have a single ring.

The nitrogenous bases, important components of nucleotides, are organic molecules and are so named because they contain carbon and nitrogen. They are bases because they contain an amino group that has the potential of binding an extra hydrogen, and thus decreasing the hydrogen ion concentration in its environment, making it more basic. Each nucleotide in DNA contains one of four possible nitrogenous bases: adenine (A), guanine (G) cytosine (C), and thymine (T).

Scientists classify adenine and guanine as purines. The purine’s primary structure is two carbon-nitrogen rings. Scientists classify cytosine, thymine, and uracil as pyrimidines which have a single carbon-nitrogen ring as their primary structure (Figure 2.5.1). Each of these basic carbon-nitrogen rings has different functional groups attached to it. In molecular biology shorthand, we know the nitrogenous bases by their symbols A, T, G, C, and U. DNA contains A, T, G, and C; whereas, RNA contains A, U, G, and C.

The pentose sugar in DNA is deoxyribose, and in RNA, the sugar is ribose (Figure 3.5.1). The difference between the sugars is the presence of the hydroxyl group on the ribose’s second carbon and hydrogen on the deoxyribose’s second carbon. The carbon atoms of the sugar molecule are numbered as 1′, 2′, 3′, 4′, and 5′ (1′ is read as “one prime”). The phosphate residue attaches to the hydroxyl group of the 5′ carbon of one sugar and the hydroxyl group of the 3′ carbon of the sugar of the next nucleotide, which forms a 5′–3′ phosphodiester linkage. A simple dehydration reaction like the other linkages connecting monomers in macromolecules does not form the phosphodiester linkage. Its formation involves removing two phosphate groups. A polynucleotide may have thousands of such phosphodiester linkages.

DNA Double-Helix Structure

Native DNA
Figure 2.5.2. Native DNA is an antiparallel double helix. The phosphate backbone (indicated by the curvy lines) is on the outside, and the bases are on the inside. Each base from one strand interacts via hydrogen bonding with a base from the opposing strand. (Credit: Jerome Walker/Dennis Myts).

DNA has a double-helix structure (Figure 2.5.2). The sugar and phosphate lie on the outside of the helix, forming the DNA’s backbone. The nitrogenous bases are stacked in the interior, like a pair of staircase steps. Hydrogen bonds bind the pairs to each other. Every base pair in the double helix is separated from the next base pair by 0.34 nm. The helix’s two strands run in opposite directions, meaning that the 5′ carbon end of one strand will face the 3′ carbon end of its matching strand. (Scientists call this an antiparallel orientation and is important to DNA replication and in many nucleic acid interactions.)

Only certain types of base pairing are allowed. For example, a certain purine can only pair with a certain pyrimidine. This means A can pair with T, and G can pair with C, as Figure 2.5.3 shows. This is the base complementary rule. In other words, the DNA strands are complementary to each other. If the sequence of one strand is AATTGGCC, the complementary strand would have the sequence TTAACCGG. During DNA replication, each strand copies itself, resulting in a daughter DNA double helix containing one parental DNA strand and a newly synthesised strand.

Hydrogen bonds in a double stranded DNA molecule.
Figure 2.5.3. Hydrogen bonds in a double stranded DNA molecule. In a double stranded DNA molecule, the two strands run antiparallel to one another so that one strand runs 5′ to 3′ and the other 3′ to 5′. The phosphate backbone is located on the outside, and the bases are in the middle. Adenine forms hydrogen bonds (or base pairs) with thymine, and guanine base pairs with cytosine.

A mutation occurs, and adenine replaces cytosine. What impact do you think this will have on the DNA structure?

RNA

Ribonucleic acid, or RNA, is mainly involved in the process of protein synthesis under the direction of DNA. RNA is usually single-stranded and is comprised of ribonucleotides that are linked by phosphodiester bonds. A ribonucleotide in the RNA chain contains ribose (the pentose sugar), one of the four nitrogenous bases (A, U, G, and C), and the phosphate group.

There are four major types of RNA: messenger RNA (mRNA), ribosomal RNA (rRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA), and microRNA (miRNA). The first, mRNA, carries the message from DNA, which controls all the cellular activities in a cell. If a cell requires synthesising a certain protein, the gene for this product turns “on” and the messenger RNA synthesises in the nucleus. The RNA base sequence is complementary to the DNA’s coding sequence from which it has been copied. However, in RNA, the base T is absent and U is present instead. If the DNA strand has a sequence AATTGCGC, the sequence of the complementary RNA is UUAACGCG. In the cytoplasm, the mRNA interacts with ribosomes and other cellular machinery (Figure 2.5.4).

Diagram of ribosome
Figure 2.5.4. Ribosome. A ribosome has two parts: a large subunit and a small subunit. The mRNA sits in between the two subunits. A tRNA molecule recognises a codon on the mRNA, binds to it by complementary base pairing, and adds the correct amino acid to the growing peptide chain.

The mRNA is read in sets of three bases known as codons. Each codon codes for a single amino acid. In this way, the mRNA is read and the protein product is made. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is a major constituent of ribosomes on which the mRNA binds. The rRNA ensures the proper alignment of the mRNA and the Ribosomes. The ribosome’s rRNA also has an enzymatic activity (peptidyl transferase) and catalyses peptide bond formation between two aligned amino acids. Transfer RNA (tRNA) is one of the smallest of the four types of RNA, usually 70–90 nucleotides long. It carries the correct amino acid to the protein synthesis site. It is the base pairing between the tRNA and mRNA that allows for the correct amino acid to insert itself in the polypeptide chain. MicroRNAs are the smallest RNA molecules and their role involves regulating gene expression by interfering with the expression of certain mRNA messages. Table 2.5.1 summarises DNA and RNA features.

Table 2.5.1 DNA and RNA Features

DNARNA
FunctionCarries genetic informationInvolved in protein synthesis
LocationRemains in the nucleusLeaves the nucleus
StructureDouble helixUsually single-stranded
SugarDeoxyriboseRibose
PyrimidinesCytosine, thymineCytosine, uracil
PurinesAdenine, guanine Adenine, guanine

Even though the RNA is single stranded, most RNA types show extensive intramolecular base pairing between complementary sequences, creating a predictable three-dimensional structure essential for their function.

As you have learned, information flow in an organism takes place from DNA to RNA to protein. DNA dictates the structure of mRNA in a process scientists call transcription, and RNA dictates the protein’s structure in a process scientists call translation. This is the Central Dogma of Life, which holds true for all organisms; however, exceptions to the rule occur in connection with viral infections.

Section Review

Nucleic acids are molecules comprised of nucleotides that direct cellular activities such as cell division and protein synthesis. Pentose sugar, a nitrogenous base, and a phosphate group comprise each nucleotide. There are two types of nucleic acids: DNA and RNA. DNA carries the cell’s genetic blueprint and passes it on from parents to offspring (in the form of chromosomes). It has a double-helical structure with the two strands running in opposite directions, connected by hydrogen bonds, and complementary to each other. RNA is a single-stranded polymer composed of linked nucleotides made up of a pentose sugar (ribose), a nitrogenous base, and a phosphate group. RNA is involved in protein synthesis and its regulation. Messenger RNA (mRNA) copies from the DNA, exports itself from the nucleus to the cytoplasm, and contains information for constructing proteins. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is a part of the ribosomes at the site of protein synthesis; whereas, transfer RNA (tRNA) carries the amino acid to the site of protein synthesis. The microRNA regulates using mRNA for protein synthesis.

Review Questions

An interactive H5P element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here:
https://usq.pressbooks.pub/anatomy/?p=111#h5p-565

Critical Thinking Questions

An interactive H5P element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here:
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An interactive H5P element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here:
https://usq.pressbooks.pub/anatomy/?p=111#h5p-578

Click the drop down below to review the terms learned from this chapter.

An interactive H5P element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here:
https://usq.pressbooks.pub/anatomy/?p=111#h5p-583

Note: Content and images from this chapter have been adapted from Biology 2nd edition by Mary Ann Clark, Jung Choi and Matthew Douglas, used under a CC-BY license.

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