7.3: Oxidation of Pyruvate and the Citric Acid Cycle

7.3.1: Breakdown of Pyruvate

Learning Objective

Explain why cells break down pyruvate

Key Points

• In the conversion of pyruvate to acetyl CoA, each pyruvate molecule loses one carbon atom with the release of carbon dioxide.
• During the breakdown of pyruvate, electrons are transferred to NAD+ to produce NADH, which will be used by the cell to produce ATP.
• In the final step of the breakdown of pyruvate, an acetyl group is transferred to Coenzyme A to produce acetyl CoA.

Key Term

acetyl CoA

a molecule that conveys the carbon atoms from glycolysis (pyruvate) to the citric acid cycle to be oxidized for energy production

Breakdown of Pyruvate

In order for pyruvate, the product of glycolysis, to enter the next pathway, it must undergo several changes to become acetyl Coenzyme A (acetyl CoA). Acetyl CoA is a molecule that is further converted to oxaloacetate, which enters the citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle). The conversion of pyruvate to acetyl CoA is a three-step process .

Breakdown of Pyruvate

Each pyruvate molecule loses a carboxylic group in the form of carbon dioxide. The remaining two carbons are then transferred to the enzyme CoA to produce Acetyl CoA.

Step 1. A carboxyl group is removed from pyruvate, releasing a molecule of carbon dioxide into the surrounding medium. (Note: carbon dioxide is one carbon attached to two oxygen atoms and is one of the major end products of cellular respiration. ) The result of this step is a two-carbon hydroxyethyl group bound to the enzyme pyruvate dehydrogenase; the lost carbon dioxide is the first of the six carbons from the original glucose molecule to be removed. This step proceeds twice for every molecule of glucose metabolized (remember: there are two pyruvate molecules produced at the end of glycolysis); thus, two of the six carbons will have been removed at the end of both of these steps.

Step 2. The hydroxyethyl group is oxidized to an acetyl group, and the electrons are picked up by NAD⁺, forming NADH (the reduced form of NAD+). The high-energy electrons from NADH will be used later by the cell to generate ATP for energy.

Step 3. The enzyme-bound acetyl group is transferred to CoA, producing a molecule of acetyl CoA. This molecule of acetyl CoA is then further converted to be used in the next pathway of metabolism, the citric acid cycle.

7.3.2: Acetyl CoA to CO2

Learning Objective

Describe the fate of the acetyl CoA carbons in the citric acid cycle

Key Points

• The citric acid cycle is also known as the Krebs cycle or the TCA (tricarboxylic acid) cycle.
• Acetyl CoA transfers its acetyl group to oxaloacetate to form citrate and begin the citric acid cycle.
• The release of carbon dioxide is coupled with the reduction of NAD⁺ to NADH in the citric acid cycle.

Key Terms

Krebs cycle

a series of enzymatic reactions that occurs in all aerobic organisms; it involves the oxidative metabolism of acetyl units and serves as the main source of cellular energy

TCA cycle

an alternative name for the Krebs cycle or citric acid cycle

oxaloacetate

a four carbon molecule that receives an acetyl group from acetyl CoA to form citrate, which enters the citric acid cycle

Acetyl CoA to CO₂

Acetyl CoA links glycolysis and pyruvate oxidation with the citric acid cycle. In the presence of oxygen, acetyl CoA delivers its acetyl group to a four-carbon molecule, oxaloacetate, to form citrate, a six-carbon molecule with three carboxyl groups. During this first step of the citric acid cycle, the CoA enzyme, which contains a sulfhydryl group (-SH), is recycled and becomes available to attach another acetyl group. The citrate will then harvest the remainder of the extractable energy from what began as a glucose molecule and continue through the citric acid cycle.

In the citric acid cycle, the two carbons that were originally the acetyl group of acetyl CoA are released as carbon dioxide, one of the major products of cellular respiration, through a series of enzymatic reactions . For each acetyl CoA that enters the citric acid cycle, two carbon dioxide molecules are released in reactions that are coupled with the production of NADH molecules from the reduction of NAD⁺ molecules.

Acetyl CoA and the Citric Acid Cycle

For each molecule of acetyl CoA that enters the citric acid cycle, two carbon dioxide molecules are released, removing the carbons from the acetyl group.

In addition to the citric acid cycle, named for the first intermediate formed, citric acid, or citrate, when acetate joins to the oxaloacetate, the cycle is also known by two other names. The TCA cycle is named for tricarboxylic acids (TCA) because citric acid (or citrate) and isocitrate, the first two intermediates that are formed, are tricarboxylic acids. Additionally, the cycle is known as the Krebs cycle, named after Hans Krebs, who first identified the steps in the pathway in the 1930s in pigeon flight muscle.

7.3.3: Citric Acid Cycle

Learning Objective

List the steps of the Krebs (or citric acid) cycle

Key Points

• The four-carbon molecule, oxaloacetate, that began the cycle is regenerated after the eight steps of the citric acid cycle.
• The eight steps of the citric acid cycle are a series of redox, dehydration, hydration, and decarboxylation reactions.
• Each turn of the cycle forms one GTP or ATP as well as three NADH molecules and one FADH2 molecule, which will be used in further steps of cellular respiration to produce ATP for the cell.

Key Terms

mitochondria

in cell biology, a mitochondrion (plural mitochondria) is a membrane-enclosed organelle, often described as "cellular power plants" because they generate most of the ATP

Krebs cycle

a series of enzymatic reactions that occurs in all aerobic organisms; it involves the oxidative metabolism of acetyl units and serves as the main source of cellular energy

citric acid cycle

a series of chemical reactions used by all aerobic organisms to generate energy through the oxidization of acetate derived from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins into carbon dioxide

Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs Cycle)

Like the conversion of pyruvate to acetyl CoA, the citric acid cycle takes place in the matrix of the mitochondria. Almost all of the enzymes of the citric acid cycle are soluble, with the single exception of the enzyme succinate dehydrogenase, which is embedded in the inner membrane of the mitochondrion. Unlike glycolysis, the citric acid cycle is a closed loop: the last part of the pathway regenerates the compound used in the first step. The eight steps of the cycle are a series of redox, dehydration, hydration, and decarboxylation reactions that produce two carbon dioxide molecules, one GTP/ATP, and reduced forms of NADH and FADH2 . This is considered an aerobic pathway because the NADH and FADH2 produced must transfer their electrons to the next pathway in the system, which will use oxygen. If this transfer does not occur, the oxidation steps of the citric acid cycle also do not occur. Note that the citric acid cycle produces very little ATP directly and does not directly consume oxygen.

The citric acid cycle

In the citric acid cycle, the acetyl group from acetyl CoA is attached to a four-carbon oxaloacetate molecule to form a six-carbon citrate molecule. Through a series of steps, citrate is oxidized, releasing two carbon dioxide molecules for each acetyl group fed into the cycle. In the process, three NAD+ molecules are reduced to NADH, one FAD molecule is reduced to FADH2, and one ATP or GTP (depending on the cell type) is produced (by substrate-level phosphorylation). Because the final product of the citric acid cycle is also the first reactant, the cycle runs continuously in the presence of sufficient reactants.

Steps in the Citric Acid Cycle

Step 1. The first step is a condensation step, combining the two-carbon acetyl group (from acetyl CoA) with a four-carbon oxaloacetate molecule to form a six-carbon molecule of citrate. CoA is bound to a sulfhydryl group (-SH) and diffuses away to eventually combine with another acetyl group. This step is irreversible because it is highly exergonic. The rate of this reaction is controlled by negative feedback and the amount of ATP available. If ATP levels increase, the rate of this reaction decreases. If ATP is in short supply, the rate increases.

Step 2. Citrate loses one water molecule and gains another as citrate is converted into its isomer, isocitrate.

Steps 3 and 4. In step three, isocitrate is oxidized, producing a five-carbon molecule, α-ketoglutarate, together with a molecule of CO₂ and two electrons, which reduce NAD+ to NADH. This step is also regulated by negative feedback from ATP and NADH and by a positive effect of ADP. Steps three and four are both oxidation and decarboxylation steps, which release electrons that reduce NAD⁺ to NADH and release carboxyl groups that form CO₂ molecules. α-Ketoglutarate is the product of step three, and a succinyl group is the product of step four. CoA binds the succinyl group to form succinyl CoA. The enzyme that catalyzes step four is regulated by feedback inhibition of ATP, succinyl CoA, and NADH.

Step 5. A phosphate group is substituted for coenzyme A, and a high-energy bond is formed. This energy is used in substrate-level phosphorylation (during the conversion of the succinyl group to succinate) to form either guanine triphosphate (GTP) or ATP. There are two forms of the enzyme, called isoenzymes, for this step, depending upon the type of animal tissue in which they are found. One form is found in tissues that use large amounts of ATP, such as heart and skeletal muscle. This form produces ATP. The second form of the enzyme is found in tissues that have a high number of anabolic pathways, such as liver. This form produces GTP. GTP is energetically equivalent to ATP; however, its use is more restricted. In particular, protein synthesis primarily uses GTP.

Step 6. Step six is a dehydration process that converts succinate into fumarate. Two hydrogen atoms are transferred to FAD, producing FADH₂. The energy contained in the electrons of these atoms is insufficient to reduce NAD⁺ but adequate to reduce FAD. Unlike NADH, this carrier remains attached to the enzyme and transfers the electrons to the electron transport chain directly. This process is made possible by the localization of the enzyme catalyzing this step inside the inner membrane of the mitochondrion.

Step 7. Water is added to fumarate during step seven, and malate is produced. The last step in the citric acid cycle regenerates oxaloacetate by oxidizing malate. Another molecule of NADH is produced.

Products of the Citric Acid Cycle

Two carbon atoms come into the citric acid cycle from each acetyl group, representing four out of the six carbons of one glucose molecule. Two carbon dioxide molecules are released on each turn of the cycle; however, these do not necessarily contain the most recently-added carbon atoms. The two acetyl carbon atoms will eventually be released on later turns of the cycle; thus, all six carbon atoms from the original glucose molecule are eventually incorporated into carbon dioxide. Each turn of the cycle forms three NADH molecules and one FADH₂ molecule. These carriers will connect with the last portion of aerobic respiration to produce ATP molecules. One GTP or ATP is also made in each cycle. Several of the intermediate compounds in the citric acid cycle can be used in synthesizing non-essential amino acids; therefore, the cycle is amphibolic (both catabolic and anabolic).

Attributions

• Breakdown of Pyruvate
  • "Boundless." http://www.boundless.com/. Boundless Learning CC BY-SA 3.0.
  • "acetyl CoA." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/acetyl%20CoA. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.
  • "OpenStax College, Biology. October 16, 2013." http://cnx.org/content/m44433/latest/?collection=col11448/latest. OpenStax CNX CC BY 3.0.
  • "09 10PyruvateToAcetylCoA-L." http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:09_10PyruvateToAcetylCoA-L.jpg. Wikimedia CC BY.
• Acetyl CoA to CO2
  • "Boundless." http://www.boundless.com/. Boundless Learning CC BY-SA 3.0.
  • "Krebs cycle." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Krebs_cycle. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.
  • "OpenStax College, Biology. October 29, 2013." http://cnx.org/content/m44433/latest/?collection=col11448/latest. OpenStax CNX CC BY 3.0.
  • "OpenStax College, Oxidation of Pyruvate and the Citric Acid Cycle. November 10, 2013." http://cnx.org/content/m44433/latest/. OpenStax CNX CC BY 3.0.
• Citric Acid Cycle
  • "Boundless." http://www.boundless.com/. Boundless Learning CC BY-SA 3.0.
  • "mitochondria." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/mitochondria. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.
  • "citric acid cycle." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/citric%20acid%20cycle. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.
  • "Krebs cycle." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Krebs_cycle. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.
  • "OpenStax College, Biology. October 16, 2013." http://cnx.org/content/m44433/latest/?collection=col11448/latest. OpenStax CNX CC BY 3.0.
  • "OpenStax College, Oxidation of Pyruvate and the Citric Acid Cycle. October 16, 2013." http://cnx.org/content/m44433/latest/Figure_07_03_02.jpg. OpenStax CNX CC BY 3.0.