11.2: Sexual Reproduction

11.2.1: Advantages and Disadvantages of Sexual Reproduction

Learning Objective

Describe the benefits of sexual reproduction

Key Points

• The variation that sexual reproduction creates among offspring is very important to the survival and reproduction of the population.
• In sexual reproduction, different mutations are continually reshuffled from one generation to the next when different parents combine their unique genomes; this results in an increase of genetic diversity.
• On average, a sexually-reproducing population will leave more offspring than an otherwise similar asexually-reproducing population.

Key Terms

sexual reproduction

Sexual reproduction is the creation of a new organism by combining the genetic material of two organisms. There are two main processes during sexual reproduction: meiosis, involving the halving of the number of chromosomes, and fertilization, involving the fusion of two gametes and the restoration of the original number of chromosomes.

asexual reproduction

any form of reproduction that involves neither meiosis nor fusion of gametes

An Introduction to Sexual Reproduction

Sexual reproduction was an early evolutionary innovation after the appearance of eukaryotic cells. During sexual reproduction, the genetic material of two individuals is combined to produce genetically-diverse offspring that differ from their parents. The fact that most eukaryotes reproduce sexually is evidence of its evolutionary success. In many animals, it is actually the only mode of reproduction. The genetic diversity of sexually-produced offspring is thought to give species a better chance of surviving in an unpredictable or changing environment.

Scientists recognize some real disadvantages to sexual reproduction. On the surface, creating offspring that are genetic clones of the parent appears to be a better system. If the parent organism is successfully occupying a habitat, offspring with the same traits would be similarly successful. Species that reproduce sexually must maintain two different types of individuals, males and females, which can limit the ability to colonize new habitats as both sexes must be present. Therefore, there is an obvious benefit to an organism that can produce offspring whenever circumstances are favorable by asexual budding, fragmentation, or asexual eggs. These methods of asexual reproduction do not require another organism of the opposite sex. Indeed, some organisms that lead a solitary lifestyle have retained the ability to reproduce asexually. In addition, in asexual populations, every individual is capable of reproduction. In sexual populations, the males are not producing the offspring themselves. In theory, an asexual population could grow twice as fast.

Nevertheless, multicellular organisms that exclusively depend on asexual reproduction are exceedingly rare. Why is sexuality (and meiosis) so common? This is one of the important unanswered questions in biology and has been the focus of much research beginning in the latter half of the twentieth century. There are several possible explanations, one of which is that the variation that sexual reproduction creates among offspring is very important to the survival and reproduction of the population. Thus, on average, a sexually-reproducing population will leave more descendants than an otherwise similar asexually-reproducing population. The only source of variation in asexual organisms is mutation. This is the ultimate source of variation in sexual organisms, but, in addition, those different mutations are continually reshuffled from one generation to the next when different parents combine their unique genomes and the genes are mixed into different combinations by the process of meiosis. Meiosis is the division of the contents of the nucleus, dividing the chromosomes among gametes.

The process of meiosis produces unique reproductive cells called gametes, which have half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell. Fertilization, the fusion of haploid gametes from two individuals, restores the diploid condition. Thus, sexually-reproducing organisms alternate between haploid and diploid stages . However, the ways in which reproductive cells are produced and the timing between meiosis and fertilization vary greatly. There are three main categories of sexual life cycles: diploid-dominant, demonstrated by most animals; haploid-dominant, demonstrated by all fungi and some algae; and the alternation of generations, demonstrated by plants and some algae.

The Sexual Life Cycle

In animals, sexually-reproducing adults form haploid gametes from diploid germ cells. Fusion of the gametes gives rise to a fertilized egg cell, or zygote. The zygote will undergo multiple rounds of mitosis to produce a multicellular offspring.

The Red Queen Hypothesis

It is not in dispute that sexual reproduction provides evolutionary advantages to organisms that employ this mechanism to produce offspring. But why, even in the face of fairly stable conditions, does sexual reproduction persist when it is more difficult and costly for individual organisms? Variation is the outcome of sexual reproduction, but why are ongoing variations necessary? Possible answers to these questions are explained in the Red Queen hypothesis, first proposed by Leigh Van Valen in 1973.

All species co-evolve with other organisms; for example, predators evolve with their prey and parasites evolve with their hosts. Each tiny advantage gained by favorable variation gives a species an edge over close competitors, predators, parasites, or even prey. The only method that will allow a co-evolving species to maintain its own share of the resources is to also continually improve its fitness. As one species gains an advantage, this increases selection on the other species; they must also develop an advantage or they will be out-competed. No single species progresses too far ahead because genetic variation among the progeny of sexual reproduction provides all species with a mechanism to improve rapidly. Species that cannot keep up become extinct. The Red Queen's catchphrase was, "It takes all the running you can do to stay in the same place." This is an apt description of co-evolution between competing species.

11.2.2: Life Cycles of Sexually Reproducing Organisms

Learning Objective

Explain the life cycles in sexual reproduction

Key Points

• In the diploid-dominant cycle, the multicellular diploid stage is the most obvious life stage; the only haploid cells produced by the organism are the gametes.
• Most fungi and algae employ a haploid-dominant life cycle type in which the "body" of the organism is haploid; specialized haploid cells from two individuals join to form a diploid zygote.
• Observed in all plants and some algae, species with alternation of generations have both haploid and diploid multicellular organisms as part of their life cycle.

Key Terms

zygote

a diploid fertilized egg cell

gametophyte

a plant (or the haploid phase in its life cycle) that produces gametes by mitosis in order to produce a zygote

sporophyte

a plant (or the diploid phase in its life cycle) that produces spores by meiosis in order to produce gametophytes

Life Cycles of Sexually Reproducing Organisms

In sexual reproduction, the genetic material of two individuals is combined to produce genetically diverse offspring that differ from their parents. Fertilization and meiosis alternate in sexual life cycles. What happens between these two events depends upon the organism. The process of meiosis, the division of the contents of the nucleus that divides the chromosomes among gametes, reduces the chromosome number by half, while fertilization, the joining of two haploid gametes, restores the diploid condition. There are three main categories of life cycles in eukaryotic organisms: diploid-dominant, haploid-dominant, and alternation of generations.

Diploid-Dominant Life Cycle

In the diploid-dominant life cycle, the multicellular diploid stage is the most obvious life stage, as occurs with most animals, including humans. Nearly all animals employ a diploid-dominant life cycle strategy in which the only haploid cells produced by the organism are the gametes. Early in the development of the embryo, specialized diploid cells, called germ cells, are produced within the gonads (e.g. testes and ovaries). Germ cells are capable of mitosis to perpetuate the cell line and meiosis to produce gametes. Once the haploid gametes are formed, they lose the ability to divide again. There is no multicellular haploid life stage. Fertilization occurs with the fusion of two gametes, usually from different individuals, restoring the diploid state .

Diploid-Dominant Life Cycle

In animals, sexually-reproducing adults form haploid gametes from diploid germ cells. Fusion of the gametes gives rise to a fertilized egg cell, or zygote. The zygote will undergo multiple rounds of mitosis to produce a multicellular offspring. The germ cells are generated early in the development of the zygote.

Haploid-Dominant Life Cycle

Within haploid-dominant life cycles, the multicellular haploid stage is the most obvious life stage. Most fungi and algae employ a life cycle type in which the "body" of the organism, the ecologically important part of the life cycle, is haploid. The haploid cells that make up the tissues of the dominant multicellular stage are formed by mitosis. During sexual reproduction, specialized haploid cells from two individuals, designated the (+) and (−) mating types, join to form a diploid zygote. The zygote immediately undergoes meiosis to form four haploid cells called spores. Although haploid like the "parents," these spores contain a new genetic combination from two parents. The spores can remain dormant for various time periods. Eventually, when conditions are conducive, the spores form multicellular haploid structures by many rounds of mitosis .

Haploid-Dominant Life Cycle

Fungi, such as black bread mold (Rhizopus nigricans), have haploid-dominant life cycles. The haploid multicellular stage produces specialized haploid cells by mitosis that fuse to form a diploid zygote. The zygote undergoes meiosis to produce haploid spores. Each spore gives rise to a multicellular haploid organism by mitosis.

Alternation of Generations

The third life-cycle type, employed by some algae and all plants, is a blend of the haploid-dominant and diploid-dominant extremes. Species with alternation of generations have both haploid and diploid multicellular organisms as part of their life cycle. The haploid multicellular plants are called gametophytes because they produce gametes from specialized cells. Meiosis is not directly involved in the production of gametes because the organism that produces the gametes is already a haploid. Fertilization between the gametes forms a diploid zygote. The zygote will undergo many rounds of mitosis and give rise to a diploid multicellular plant called a sporophyte. Specialized cells of the sporophyte will undergo meiosis and produce haploid spores. The spores will subsequently develop into the gametophytes .

Alternation of Generations

Plants have a life cycle that alternates between a multicellular haploid organism and a multicellular diploid organism. In some plants, such as ferns, both the haploid and diploid plant stages are free-living. The diploid plant is called a sporophyte because it produces haploid spores by meiosis. The spores develop into multicellular, haploid plants called gametophytes because they produce gametes. The gametes of two individuals will fuse to form a diploid zygote that becomes the sporophyte.

Although all plants utilize some version of the alternation of generations, the relative size of the sporophyte and the gametophyte and the relationship between them vary greatly. In plants such as moss, the gametophyte organism is the free-living plant, while the sporophyte is physically dependent on the gametophyte. In other plants, such as ferns, both the gametophyte and sporophyte plants are free-living; however, the sporophyte is much larger. In seed plants, such as magnolia trees and daisies, the gametophyte is composed of only a few cells and, in the case of the female gametophyte, is completely retained within the sporophyte.

Sexual reproduction takes many forms in multicellular organisms. However, at some point in each type of life cycle, meiosis produces haploid cells that will fuse with the haploid cell of another organism. The mechanisms of variation (crossover, random assortment of homologous chromosomes, and random fertilization) are present in all versions of sexual reproduction. The fact that nearly every multicellular organism on earth employs sexual reproduction is strong evidence for the benefits of producing offspring with unique gene combinations, although there are other possible benefits as well.

Attributions

• Advantages and Disadvantages of Sexual Reproduction
  • "Boundless." http://www.boundless.com/. Boundless Learning CC BY-SA 3.0.
  • "asexual reproduction." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/asexual_reproduction. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.
  • "sexual reproduction." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/sexual%20reproduction. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.
  • "OpenStax College, Sexual Reproduction. October 26, 2013." http://cnx.org/content/m45465/latest/. OpenStax CNX CC BY 3.0.
  • "OpenStax College, Reproduction Methods. October 26, 2013." http://cnx.org/content/m44836/latest/. OpenStax CNX CC BY 3.0.
  • "OpenStax College, Biology. October 16, 2013." http://cnx.org/content/m44470/latest/?collection=col11448/latest. OpenStax CNX CC BY 3.0.
  • "Biological life cycle." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_life_cycle. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.
• Life Cycles of Sexually Reproducing Organisms
  • "Boundless." http://www.boundless.com/. Boundless Learning CC BY-SA 3.0.
  • "sporophyte." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/sporophyte. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.
  • "zygote." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/zygote. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.
  • "gametophyte." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/gametophyte. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.
  • "OpenStax College, Biology. October 16, 2013." http://cnx.org/content/m44470/latest/?collection=col11448/latest. OpenStax CNX CC BY 3.0.
  • "OpenStax College, Sexual Reproduction. October 16, 2013." http://cnx.org/content/m44470/latest/Figure_11_02_02.jpg. OpenStax CNX CC BY 3.0.
  • "OpenStax College, Sexual Reproduction. October 16, 2013." http://cnx.org/content/m44470/latest/Figure_11_02_03.jpg. OpenStax CNX CC BY 3.0.
  • "OpenStax College, Sexual Reproduction. October 16, 2013." http://cnx.org/content/m44470/latest/Figure_11_02_01.jpg. OpenStax CNX CC BY 3.0.