1.2: Themes and Concepts of Biology

1.2.1: Properties of Life

Learning Objective

Describe the properties of life

Key Points

• Order can include highly organized structures such as cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems.
• Interaction with the environment is shown by response to stimuli.
• The ability to reproduce, grow and develop are defining features of life.
• The concepts of biological regulation and maintenance of homeostasis are key to survival and define major properties of life.
• Organisms use energy to maintain their metabolic processes.
• Populations of organisms evolve to produce individuals that are adapted to their specific environment.

Key Terms

gene

a unit of heredity; the functional units of chromosomes that determine specific characteristics by coding for specific proteins

phototaxis

The movement of an organism either towards or away from a source of light

chemotaxis

the movement of a cell or an organism in response to a chemical stimulant

Properties of Life

All living organisms share several key characteristics or functions: order, sensitivity or response to the environment, reproduction, growth and development, regulation, homeostasis, and energy processing. When viewed together, these eight characteristics serve to define life.

Order

Organisms are highly organized, coordinated structures that consist of one or more cells. Even very simple, single-celled organisms are remarkably complex: inside each cell, atoms make up molecules; these in turn make up cell organelles and other cellular inclusions. In multicellular organisms , similar cells form tissues. Tissues, in turn, collaborate to create organs (body structures with a distinct function). Organs work together to form organ systems.

Multicellular Organisms

A toad represents a highly organized structure consisting of cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems.

Sensitivity or Response to Stimuli

Organisms can respond to diverse stimuli. For example, plants can grow toward a source of light, climb on fences and walls, or respond to touch . Even tiny bacteria can move toward or away from chemicals (a process called chemotaxis) or light (phototaxis). Movement toward a stimulus is considered a positive response, while movement away from a stimulus is considered a negative response.

Response to Stimuli

The leaves of this sensitive plant (Mimosa pudica) will instantly droop and fold when touched. After a few minutes, the plant returns to normal.

Reproduction

Single-celled organisms reproduce by first duplicating their DNA. They then divide it equally as the cell prepares to divide to form two new cells. Multicellular organisms often produce specialized reproductive germline cells that will form new individuals. When reproduction occurs, genes containing DNA are passed along to an organism's offspring. These genes ensure that the offspring will belong to the same species and will have similar characteristics, such as size and shape .

Reproduction

Although no two look alike, these kittens have inherited genes from both parents and share many of the same characteristics.

Growth and Development

All organisms grow and develop following specific instructions coded for by their genes. These genes provide instructions that will direct cellular growth and development, ensuring that a species' young will grow up to exhibit many of the same characteristics as its parents.

Regulation

Even the smallest organisms are complex and require multiple regulatory mechanisms to coordinate internal functions, respond to stimuli, and cope with environmental stresses. Two examples of internal functions regulated in an organism are nutrient transport and blood flow. Organs (groups of tissues working together) perform specific functions, such as carrying oxygen throughout the body, removing wastes, delivering nutrients to every cell, and cooling the body.

Homeostasis

In order to function properly, cells need to have appropriate conditions such as proper temperature, pH, and appropriate concentration of diverse chemicals. These conditions may, however, change from one moment to the next. Organisms are able to maintain internal conditions within a narrow range almost constantly, despite environmental changes, through homeostasis (literally, "steady state")—the ability of an organism to maintain constant internal conditions. For example, an organism needs to regulate body temperature through a process known as thermoregulation. Organisms that live in cold climates, such as the polar bear , have body structures that help them withstand low temperatures and conserve body heat. Structures that aid in this type of insulation include fur, feathers, blubber, and fat. In hot climates, organisms have methods (such as perspiration in humans or panting in dogs) that help them to shed excess body heat.

Homeostasis

Polar bears (Ursus maritimus) and other mammals living in ice-covered regions maintain their body temperature by generating heat and reducing heat loss through thick fur and a dense layer of fat under their skin.

Energy Processing

All organisms use a source of energy for their metabolic activities. Some organisms capture energy from the sun and convert it into chemical energy in food; others use chemical energy in molecules they take in as food .

Energy Processing

The California condor (Gymnogyps californianus) uses chemical energy derived from food to power flight.

Evolution

As a population of organisms interacts with the environment, individuals with traits that contribute to reproduction and survival in that particular environment will leave more offspring. Over time those advantageous traits (called adaptations) will become more common in the population. This process, change over time, is called evolution, and it is one of the processes that explain the diverse species seen in biology. Adaptations help organisms survive in their ecological niches, and adaptive traits may be structural, behavioral, or physiological; as such, adaptations frequently involve other properties of organisms such as homeostasis, reproduction, and growth and development.

Adaptation in the flat-tailed horned lizard

This lizard exhibits a flattened body and coloring that helps camouflage it, both of which are adaptive traits that help it avoid predators.

1.2.2: Levels of Organization of Living Things

Learning Objective

Describe the biological levels of organization from the smallest to highest level

Key Points

• The atom is the smallest and most fundamental unit of matter. The bonding of at least two atoms or more form molecules.
• The simplest level of organization for living things is a single organelle, which is composed of aggregates of macromolecules.
• The highest level of organization for living things is the biosphere; it encompasses all other levels.
• The biological levels of organization of living things arranged from the simplest to most complex are: organelle, cells, tissues, organs, organ systems, organisms, populations, communities, ecosystem, and biosphere.

Key Terms

polymerization

The chemical process, normally with the aid of a catalyst, to form a polymer by bonding together multiple identical units (monomers).

macromolecule

a very large molecule, especially used in reference to large biological polymers (e.g. nucleic acids and proteins)

molecule

The smallest particle of a specific compound that retains the chemical properties of that compound; two or more atoms held together by chemical bonds.

Levels of Organization of Living Things

Living things are highly organized and structured, following a hierarchy that can be examined on a scale from small to large. The atom is the smallest and most fundamental unit of matter. It consists of a nucleus surrounded by electrons. Atoms form molecules which are chemical structures consisting of at least two atoms held together by one or more chemical bonds. Many molecules that are biologically important are macromolecules, large molecules that are typically formed by polymerization (a polymer is a large molecule that is made by combining smaller units called monomers, which are simpler than macromolecules). An example of a macromolecule is deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) , which contains the instructions for the structure and functioning of all living organisms.

DNA

All molecules, including this DNA molecule, are composed of atoms.

From Organelles to Biospheres

Macromolecules can form aggregates within a cell that are surrounded by membranes; these are called organelles. Organelles are small structures that exist within cells. Examples of these include: mitochondria and chloroplasts, which carry out indispensable functions. Mitochondria produce energy to power the cell while chloroplasts enable green plants to utilize the energy in sunlight to make sugars. All living things are made of cells, and the cell itself is the smallest fundamental unit of structure and function in living organisms. (This requirement is why viruses are not considered living: they are not made of cells. To make new viruses, they have to invade and hijack the reproductive mechanism of a living cell; only then can they obtain the materials they need to reproduce. ) Some organisms consist of a single cell and others are multicellular. Cells are classified as prokaryotic or eukaryotic. Prokaryotes are single-celled or colonial organisms that do not have membrane-bound nuclei; in contrast, the cells of eukaryotes do have membrane-bound organelles and a membrane-bound nucleus.

In larger organisms, cells combine to make tissues, which are groups of similar cells carrying out similar or related functions. Organs are collections of tissues grouped together performing a common function. Organs are present not only in animals but also in plants. An organ system is a higher level of organization that consists of functionally related organs. Mammals have many organ systems. For instance, the circulatory system transports blood through the body and to and from the lungs; it includes organs such as the heart and blood vessels. Furthermore, organisms are individual living entities. For example, each tree in a forest is an organism. Single-celled prokaryotes and single-celled eukaryotes are also considered organisms and are typically referred to as microorganisms.

All the individuals of a species living within a specific area are collectively called a population. For example, a forest may include many pine trees. All of these pine trees represent the population of pine trees in this forest. Different populations may live in the same specific area. For example, the forest with the pine trees includes populations of flowering plants and also insects and microbial populations. A community is the sum of populations inhabiting a particular area. For instance, all of the trees, flowers, insects, and other populations in a forest form the forest's community. The forest itself is an ecosystem. An ecosystem consists of all the living things in a particular area together with the abiotic, non-living parts of that environment such as nitrogen in the soil or rain water. At the highest level of organization, the biosphere is the collection of all ecosystems, and it represents the zones of life on earth. It includes land, water, and even the atmosphere to a certain extent. Taken together, all of these levels comprise the biological levels of organization, which range from organelles to the biosphere .

Biological Levels of Organization

The biological levels of organization of living things follow a hierarchy, such as the one shown. From a single organelle to the entire biosphere, living organisms are part of a highly structured hierarchy.

1.2.3: The Diversity of Life

Learning Objective

Recognize the three major domains used for classification

Key Points

• The three major Domains of Life include: Domain Bacteria, Domain Eukarya and Domain Archaea.
• Domain Bacteria and Domain Archaea include prokaryotic cells that lack membrane-enclosed nuclei and organelles.
• Domain Eukarya include eukaryotes and more complex organisms that contain membrane-bound nuclei and organelles.
• Carl Woese defined Archaea as a new domain and constructed the phylogentic tree of life which shows separation of all living organisms.
• The phylogenetic tree of life was constructed by Carl Woese using sequencing data of ribosomal RNA genes. Therefore, genetics classification surpassed morphological cataloguing, which was the traditional way of organizing living beings.

Key Terms

DNA

a biopolymer of deoxyribonucleic acids (a type of nucleic acid) that has four different chemical groups, called bases: adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine

extremophile

an organism that lives under extreme conditions of temperature, salinity, etc; commercially important as a source of enzymes that operate under similar conditions

phylogeny

the evolutionary history of an organism

The Diversity of Life

The fact that biology has such a broad scope as a science has to do with the tremendous diversity of life on Earth. The source of this diversity is evolution, the process of gradual change during which new species arise from older species. Evolutionary biologists study the evolution of living things in everything from the microscopic world to ecosystems.

The evolution of various life forms on Earth can be summarized in a phylogenetic tree using phylogeny . A phylogenetic tree is a diagram showing the evolutionary relationships among biological species based on similarities and differences in genetic or physical traits or both. A phylogenetic tree is composed of nodes and branches. The internal nodes represent ancestors and are points in evolution when, based on scientific evidence, an ancestor is thought to have diverged to form two new species. The length of each branch is proportional to the time elapsed since the split.

Phylogenetic Tree of Life

This phylogenetic tree was constructed by microbiologist Carl Woese using data obtained from sequencing ribosomal RNA genes. The tree shows the separation of living organisms into three domains: Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya. Bacteria and Archaea are prokaryotes, single-celled organisms lacking intracellular organelles.

Carl Woese and the Phylogenetic Tree

In the past, biologists grouped living organisms into five kingdoms: animals, plants, fungi, protists, and bacteria. The organizational scheme was based mainly on physical features, as opposed to physiology, biochemistry, or molecular biology, all of which are used by modern systematics. The pioneering work of American microbiologist Carl Woese in the early 1970s has shown, however, that life on Earth has evolved along three lineages, now called domains—Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya . The first two are prokaryotic cells with microbes that lack membrane-enclosed nuclei and organelles. The third domain contains the eukaryotes and includes unicellular microorganisms together with the four original kingdoms (excluding bacteria). Woese defined Archaea as a new domain, and this resulted in a new taxonomic tree . Many organisms belonging to the Archaea domain live under extreme conditions and are called extremophiles. To construct his tree, Woese used genetic relationships rather than similarities based on morphology (shape).

Woese's tree was constructed from comparative sequencing of the genes that are universally distributed, present in every organism, and conserved (meaning that these genes have remained essentially unchanged throughout evolution). Woese's approach was revolutionary because comparisons of physical features are insufficient to differentiate between the prokaryotes that appear fairly similar in spite of their tremendous biochemical diversity and genetic variability. The comparison of homologous DNA and RNA sequences provided Woese with a sensitive device that revealed the extensive variability of prokaryotes, and which justified the separation of the prokaryotes into two domains: bacteria and archaea. DNA, the universal genetic material, contains the instructions for the structure and function of all living organisms and can be divided into genes whose expression varies between organisms. The RNA, which is transcribed from DNA, varies between organisms as well based on the expression of specific genes. Thus, to examine differences at this molecular level provides a more accurate depiction of the diversity which exists.

Attributions

• Properties of Life
  • "Boundless." http://www.boundless.com/. Boundless Learning CC BY-SA 3.0.
  • "Adaptation." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adaptation. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.
  • "gene." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/gene. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.
  • "chemotaxis." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/chemotaxis. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.
  • "phototaxis." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/phototaxis. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.
  • "OpenStax College, Biology. October 16, 2013." http://cnx.org/content/m44388/latest/?collection=col11448/latest. OpenStax CNX CC BY 3.0.
  • "File:Phrynosoma mcallii.jpg." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Phrynosoma_mcallii.jpg. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.
  • "OpenStax College, Themes and Concepts of Biology. October 16, 2013." http://cnx.org/content/m44388/latest/Figure_01_02_09.jpg. OpenStax CNX CC BY 3.0.
  • "OpenStax College, Themes and Concepts of Biology. October 16, 2013." http://cnx.org/content/m44388/latest/Figure_01_02_10.jpg. OpenStax CNX CC BY 3.0.
  • "OpenStax College, Themes and Concepts of Biology. October 16, 2013." http://cnx.org/content/m44388/latest/Figure_01_02_11.jpg. OpenStax CNX CC BY 3.0.
  • "OpenStax College, Themes and Concepts of Biology. October 16, 2013." http://cnx.org/content/m44388/latest/Figure_01_02_12.jpg. OpenStax CNX CC BY 3.0.
  • "OpenStax College, Themes and Concepts of Biology. October 16, 2013." http://cnx.org/content/m44388/latest/Figure_01_02_13.jpg. OpenStax CNX CC BY 3.0.
• Levels of Organization of Living Things
  • "Boundless." http://www.boundless.com/. Boundless Learning CC BY-SA 3.0.
  • "OpenStax College, Biology. October 16, 2013." http://cnx.org/content/m44388/latest/?collection=col11448/latest. OpenStax CNX CC BY 3.0.
  • "polymerization." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/polymerization. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.
  • "molecule." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/molecule. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.
  • "macromolecule." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/macromolecule. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.
  • "OpenStax College, Themes and Concepts of Biology. October 16, 2013." http://cnx.org/content/m44388/latest/Figure_01_02_15new.png. OpenStax CNX CC BY 3.0.
  • "OpenStax College, Themes and Concepts of Biology. October 16, 2013." http://cnx.org/content/m44388/latest/Figure_01_02_14.jpg. OpenStax CNX CC BY 3.0.
• The Diversity of Life
  • "Boundless." http://www.boundless.com/. Boundless Learning CC BY-SA 3.0.
  • "OpenStax College, Biology. October 16, 2013." http://cnx.org/content/m44388/latest/?collection=col11448/latest. OpenStax CNX CC BY 3.0.
  • "phylogeny." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/phylogeny. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.
  • "extremophile." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/extremophile. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.
  • "DNA." http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/DNA. Wiktionary CC BY-SA 3.0.
  • "OpenStax College, Themes and Concepts of Biology. October 16, 2013." http://cnx.org/content/m44388/latest/Figure_01_02_16.jpg. OpenStax CNX CC BY 3.0.