Skip to main content

Introduction to Chemistry: 2.0 Introduction

Introduction to Chemistry
2.0 Introduction
    • Notifications
    • Privacy
  • Project HomeNatural Sciences Collection: Anatomy, Biology, and Chemistry
  • Projects
  • Learn more about Manifold

Notes

Show the following:

  • Annotations
  • Resources
Search within:

Adjust appearance:

  • font
    Font style
  • color scheme
  • Margins
table of contents
  1. Cover
  2. Title Page
  3. Copyright
  4. Table Of Contents
  5. Introduction
  6. Preface
  7. Acknowledgements
  8. About the Authors
  9. Chapter 1. Chemistry: An Experimental Science
    1. 1.0 Introduction
    2. 1.1 Chemistry in Context
    3. 1.2 Phases and Classification of Matter
    4. 1.3 Physical and Chemical Properties
  10. Chapter 2. Atoms, Molecules, and Ions
    1. 2.0 Introduction
    2. 2.1 Atomic Theory
    3. 2.2 Beyond Dalton’s Atomic Theory
    4. 2.3 Atomic Structure and Symbols
    5. 2.4 Chemical Formulas
    6. 2.5 The Periodic Table
  11. Chapter 3. Ions, Bonding and Compound Formation
    1. 3.0 Introduction
    2. 3.1 Ionic and Molecular Compounds
    3. 3.2 Nomenclature of Simple Ionic and Molecular Compounds
  12. Chapter 4. Chemical Reactions and Equations
    1. 4.0 Introduction
    2. 4.1 Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations
    3. 4.2 Precipitation Reactions
    4. 4.3 Acid-Base Reactions
    5. 4.4 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
  13. Chapter 5. Bridging the Macroscopic and Microscopic Realms
    1. 5.0 Introduction
    2. 5.1 Formula Mass
    3. 5.2 The Mole
    4. 5.3 Reaction Stoichiometry
    5. 5.4 Limiting Reactant and Reaction Yields
  14. Chapter 6. Solutions
    1. 6.0 Introduction
    2. 6.1 Solution Concentration and Molarity
    3. 6.2 Other Concentration Units
  15. Chapter 7. Chemical Bonding and Lewis Structures
    1. 7.0 Introduction
    2. 7.1 Covalent Bonding
    3. 7.2 Lewis Dot Structures
    4. 7.3 Lewis Structures and Covalent Compounds
  16. Additional Reading: Electronic Structure of Atoms
    1. 8.0 Introduction
    2. 8.1 Electromagnetic Energy
    3. 8.2 Quantization of the Energy of Electrons
    4. 8.3 Development of Quantum Theory
    5. 8.4 Electronic Structure of Atoms
    6. 8.5 Periodic Trends
  17. Chapter LAB1. Making Measurements
    1. Introduction
    2. LAB1.1 Expressing Numbers
    3. LAB1.2 Measurements and Units
    4. LAB1.3 Measurement Uncertainty, Accuracy, and Precision
    5. LAB1.4 Mathematical Treatment of Measurement Results – Unit Conversions
    6. LAB1.5 Density – A Derived Unit and Conversion Factor
  18. Appendix
  19. Appendix A: The Periodic Table
  20. Appendix B: Essential Mathematics
  21. Appendix C: Units and Conversion Factors
  22. Appendix D: Fundamental Physical Constants

5

2.0 Introduction

young women painting watchfaces in a factory 1920s
Radium girls painting watchfaces.

When you look at your phone or watch in the dark, the display is illuminated electronically. This seems like a small convenience, but in the early parts of the 19th Century outdoor illumination was poor or nonexistent and watches had no battery power for illumination. Seeing a watch face at night was a real problem.

Our understanding of atomic structure and behavior was progressing rapidly in the early part of the Century, revealing the existence of subatomic particles, and new elements, some of which were radioactive. Related technology developed rapidly as well. The radioactive element radium was concentrated from ore and mixed with substances called phosphors into military and consumer products, including paint. These paints could give dials, mechanical gauges, and watches a faint green-blue glow, allowing them to be visible in low light. An industry grew up around these materials and products, employing individuals who would paint these displays by hand.

The close work was typically carried out by young women, who used camel hair brushes that had a tendency to lose their fine points quickly. As they painted, these women would often reset the point of their brush with their mouths.

Across the U.S. and Canada thousands did this work. But then negative health effects due to their exposure to radioactivity began to show. Fractured bones, necrosis (deterioration and tissue death) of the jaw, and anemia were associated with the work of the “Radium Girls.” Some of the companies employing these women had deliberately protected their scientific and office workmen from exposure, so this was a scandal as well as a public health disaster. The company’s claims that they were ignorant of the risks were not persuasive.

After multiple deaths, refused insurance claims, resistance by the companies and eventual ruling by the Supreme Court, financial payouts finally got to the sick and their families, and the industry’s reputation was in tatters. Industrial health and safety was changed forever, as was Labor law.

Annotate

Next Chapter
2.1 Atomic Theory
PreviousNext
Chemistry
Copyright © 2020 by Carol Higginbotham. Introduction to Chemistry by Carol Higginbotham is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.
Powered by Manifold Scholarship. Learn more at
Opens in new tab or windowmanifoldapp.org