Chapter 8:

Light the Way: Designing with Illumination and Emotion

Introduction

Lighting design is an essential component of theatre production, shaping the visual storytelling by creating mood, highlighting action, and guiding audience focus. A skilled lighting designer balances artistic vision with technical precision, using light to enhance the director's and designers' intentions. This chapter explores the fundamentals of stage lighting, from historical developments to modern techniques in programming and operation.

Firelight and Shadows: The Roots of Lighting Design in Storytelling

Before the advent of electric stage lighting, before footlights and follow spots, there was fire. For centuries, Indigenous communities across the world gathered around campfires to share stories, passing down their history, mythology, and cultural teachings through spoken word and performance. The flickering firelight, casting shadows on faces and landscapes, was not just a source of warmth but an essential part of the storytelling experience.

In many Indigenous traditions, storytelling is a sacred act. Firelight shaped the atmosphere, creating a dynamic interplay of illumination and shadow that heightened the drama of a tale. As a storyteller spoke, their gestures danced in the shifting glow, their expressions morphing with the flames. In some traditions, intentional movement around the fire allowed storytellers to control the way light revealed or obscured certain details, building suspense and enhancing emotional impact. This early use of light as a theatrical tool foreshadowed modern lighting design, where brightness, contrast, and movement guide an audience’s focus.

Similarly, shadow puppetry—another ancient form of visual storytelling—emerged as a way to harness light and darkness in performance. Cultures across Asia, the Middle East, and parts of Africa and Europe developed intricate shadow puppet traditions, with figures cut from leather or paper manipulated in front of candle or lamplight to project silhouettes onto screens. This shadow play, often accompanied by music and narration, created layered visual effects, utilizing size and distortion to depict movement, transformation, and supernatural elements.

Firelit storytelling and shadow puppetry both reveal an essential truth about lighting design: it is not merely about visibility, but about shaping perception, emotion, and meaning. In contemporary theatre, lighting designers continue this legacy, using intensity, directionality, shape, color, and movement to evoke mood, direct attention, and bring stories to life. Whether through the warmth of an amber wash suggesting firelight or the use of projection to create shadowy figures on a backdrop, these ancient traditions remind us that light is not just a technical element—it is a language of storytelling in its own right.

The understanding of light as a storytelling tool—whether through fire’s flickering glow or the dramatic contrasts of shadow—continued to evolve as theatrical traditions developed across cultures. While Indigenous communities and early puppeteers harnessed natural light sources for intimate storytelling experiences, ancient civilizations began to explore how daylight itself could be used to shape large-scale performances.

Nowhere was this more evident than in the open-air theatres of ancient Greece. Built into hillsides to maximize natural acoustics and visibility, Greek theatres relied entirely on the sun as their primary light source. Much like firelight shaped Indigenous storytelling, the movement of the sun dictated the rhythm and mood of Greek performances, influencing everything from staging to the emotional impact of key moments. As the day progressed, the changing angles of sunlight cast long shadows or illuminated actors in dramatic ways, naturally enhancing the spectacle of Greek tragedy and comedy.

This transition from firelight and shadow play to the grandeur of sunlit amphitheaters marked a significant step in the evolution of lighting design—one that set the stage for future innovations in theatrical illumination.

The use of lighting in theatre has evolved alongside technological advancements. In ancient Greek and Roman theatre, performances relied on natural sunlight. The Renaissance introduced candle-lit chandeliers and footlights, gradually giving way to oil lamps and then gas lighting in the 19th century. The late 19th and early 20th centuries saw the rise of electric stage lighting, revolutionizing theatrical design with the introduction of spotlights, floodlights, and dimmers. Today, LED and intelligent lighting fixtures provide infinite control over color, intensity, and movement.

The Evolution of Stage Lighting: From Footlights to Intelligent Lights

As theatre evolved, so did the tools used to illuminate performers and set the mood. From the early days of candlelit stages to the highly sophisticated intelligent lighting of modern productions, each innovation in stage lighting has shaped the way stories are told and experienced by audiences.

Footlights: The First Theatrical Lighting

The earliest stages relied on footlights—rows of candles or oil lamps placed at the front edge of the stage. These lights provided basic illumination, casting a warm glow on actors and scenery, but they had significant limitations. Footlights created harsh upward shadows, making faces appear unnatural, and lacked control over intensity or direction.

With the advent of gas lighting in the early 19th century, footlights became more manageable, allowing for greater brightness and some level of dimming. One of the first major innovators in gas lighting for the stage was William Murdoch, a Scottish engineer who pioneered the use of gas illumination in the late 18th century. His work laid the foundation for widespread gas lighting in theatres, which was further developed by London’s Drury Lane Theatre and Covent Garden Theatre, which adopted gaslights by 1817. However, gas lighting also posed serious fire hazards, leading to devastating theatre fires in cities like London and Paris.

Overhead Lights and the Move to Electric Lighting

The introduction of electric lighting in the late 19th century revolutionized stage illumination. Overhead lights, such as chandeliers and early stage-mounted electric lamps, allowed for more even lighting across the stage. Sir Henry Irving, one of the most influential actors and theatre managers of the 19th century, became the first to experiment with electric stage lighting at the Lyceum Theatre in London in the 1880s. He worked closely with Thomas Edison, whose incandescent light bulb provided a safer and more controllable alternative to gaslight.

A key figure in this transition was Maude Adams, a Broadway star best known for her role as Peter Pan. Adams was fascinated by stagecraft and worked with General Electric to develop brighter and more reliable incandescent lighting for theatre. She played a crucial role in promoting the use of tungsten filament bulbs, which provided more natural and controllable stage lighting compared to earlier carbon filament bulbs. Her contributions helped shape the way lighting designers approached theatrical illumination in the early 20th century.

The use of overhead lighting enabled designers to create more realistic and atmospheric effects, moving beyond simple visibility to storytelling through light. The Limelight, invented by Scottish engineer Thomas Drummond in 1826, was an early spotlight that used a flame-heated block of quicklime to produce an intense white light. This invention was widely used in theatres for highlighting lead performers, giving rise to the term “stepping into the limelight.”

Side Lighting and the Birth of Modern Stage Design

As theatre production became more sophisticated, lighting designers began to explore new angles of illumination. Side lighting, often positioned at different heights on vertical booms or battens, became an essential tool in dance and theatrical performances. This technique helped sculpt the human form, reducing flatness and adding depth and dimension to actors’ movements.

The early 20th century saw lighting design emerge as a distinct tool for storytelling working with scenery with Adolphe Appia, a Swiss designer, leading the movement toward expressive lighting. Appia’s theories emphasized the importance of three-dimensional space and directional lighting to create depth and mood, moving away from flat, painted backdrops to more dynamic stage environments. His ideas directly influenced the way side lighting was used to sculpt actors' bodies and interact with set pieces.

Another visionary of theatrical lighting was Norman Bel Geddes, a theatrical designer and futurist who championed integrated stage lighting and innovative staging techniques in the 1920s and 1930s. He emphasized the use of lighting to create immersive theatrical experiences, blending scenic design with dramatic shifts in illumination. His designs influenced both Broadway productions and spectacle-based performances, paving the way for modern lighting design as a storytelling tool.

By the mid-20th century, lighting plots became standard, detailing how and where lights should be positioned to create specific moods and effects. One of the most influential figures in lighting theory was Stanley McCandless, often considered the father of modern stage lighting design. His McCandless Method, developed in the 1930s, introduced the concept of using a warm light and a cool light from opposing angles to create natural-looking illumination and depth on stage. This system became the foundation of lighting design education and is still widely used today.

Jean Rosenthal, another pioneer of modern theatrical lighting, brought side lighting into widespread use, particularly in dance productions. Working with the likes of Martha Graham, she used carefully placed sidelight to enhance the fluidity and form of dancers, setting a precedent for future designers.

Intelligent Lights: The Digital Revolution in Theatre

The late 20th and early 21st centuries saw the rise of intelligent lighting—computer-controlled fixtures capable of movement, color changes, and intricate effects. Moving lights, also known as automated or intelligent lights, can pan, tilt, change focus, and even create patterns with gobos (metal templates placed in front of a light source to shape beams).

One of the key figures in developing intelligent lighting was Jules Fisher, an award-winning lighting designer who helped integrate automated lighting into Broadway productions in the 1980s and beyond. Additionally, Jim Bornhorst, the lead engineer for Vari-Lite, was instrumental in the development of the first moving light system, which debuted in 1981 on a Genesis concert tour. Vari-Lite’s technology was soon adopted by theatre productions, rock concerts, and large-scale events, revolutionizing the way lighting was controlled and manipulated.

Advancements in LED technology have further expanded the possibilities of stage lighting. LEDs provide a vast spectrum of colors without the need for gels and consume significantly less power than traditional incandescent bulbs. Designers like Jennifer Tipton, renowned for her work in dance and theatre, have embraced modern LED systems while maintaining a deep understanding of how light interacts with performers and space.

From the flickering flames of footlights to the dynamic, programmable effects of intelligent lights, the evolution of stage lighting has mirrored theatre’s ever-growing ambition. No longer just a means of visibility, lighting is now a central storytelling device, capable of transforming a stage into a living, breathing world of color, shadow, and motion.

Lighting Fixtures: Understanding Types Through a Three-Tiered Lens

Lighting designers use a wide range of fixtures, each serving a distinct role in creating mood, visibility, focus, and atmosphere onstage. To simplify how these tools are understood, we use a three-tiered approach to categorize fixtures:

1. General Categories (Form and Function)

These describe the physical style of the fixture and the type of light it produces. Each category has unique beam qualities and applications.

Ellipsoidal Reflector Spotlight (ERS)
Also called Lekos or Source Fours, ERS units produce a strong, focused beam with a sharp edge. They’re ideal for highlighting actors, creating crisp shapes, and controlling spill.

FresnelKnown for their soft edges and adjustable beam spread, Fresnels are used for general area lighting and soft washes.

PAR (Parabolic Aluminized Reflector) CanPAR cans offer an intense, oval-shaped beam. They’re typically used for vibrant color washes or bold visual effects.

Cyc LightDesigned to light large vertical surfaces (like cycloramas) with smooth, blended color.

Striplight / Borderlight Long fixtures with multiple cells, used for general illumination of backdrops or wide, even coverage of scenery.

2. Light Source (How the Light Is Generated)

Each of the above categories can be manufactured with different types of light sources:

Conventional
Traditional fixtures use halogen or incandescent lamps. These offer warm color temperatures and require gels for color mixing.

LED (Light-Emitting Diode)LED fixtures are energy-efficient, cool-running, and capable of digital color mixing without gels. They’re increasingly common in modern theatre.

3. Automation and Control

Fixtures can also be classified based on how much control the lighting system has over their movement and behavior.

Static FixturesThese lights do not move or change position once they’re focused. Most conventional ERS, Fresnels, and PARs fall into this category.

Moving Mirror Fixtures
 These units have a mirror that moves to redirect the light beam, allowing for rapid shifts in direction while the base remains stationary. Less common today but still found in some concert and effects lighting.

Moving Head Fixtures The entire head of the fixture moves on a yoke, allowing for dynamic positioning, color changes, and built-in effects. These fixtures often fall into the following subtypes:

• Wash – Soft, wide beams similar to Fresnels.
• Spot – Narrower beams with sharper focus, like a PAR or tighter Fresnel.
• Profile – Similar to an ERS, with framing shutters and gobo options.
• Beam – Very narrow, high-intensity beams used for striking visual effects.
• Effect – Lights designed specifically for dynamic color, pattern, or strobe effects.

Bringing It All Together

Let’s say you're working with a moving head LED profile fixture. That tells you:

• The form is profile (sharp-edged beam, like an ERS).
• The source is LED (color-mixing and energy efficient).
• The automation is moving head (capable of changing position during a cue).

By using this three-tiered lens, lighting fixtures become more than just names—they become understandable tools with clear applications in design. This model helps students think critically about what a fixture can do, not just what it’s called.

Functions and Controllable Qualities of Light

Before choosing instruments or writing cues, lighting designers must understand the core purposes of their work and the tools available to achieve those goals. This section covers the "what" and "how" of lighting design.

Functions of Lighting Design

The functions of lighting refer to what lighting design does in a theatrical production. Most professional designers agree on five primary functions:

• Visibility: Ensuring that the audience can see the performers and action clearly. Without visibility, the story cannot be fully experienced.
• Selective Focus: Directing the audience’s attention to a specific place onstage. This can be achieved through intensity, color, movement, or isolation.
• Mood: Enhancing the emotional tone of a scene. Warm colors may create intimacy or comfort, while cold hues might suggest isolation or danger.
• Time and Place: Indicating time of day, season, weather, or location. For example, low amber light may suggest sunset, while stark white light can represent a hospital.
• Composition: Creating a balanced and cohesive stage picture. Just like a painting or photograph, good lighting frames the stage and supports the overall aesthetic of the design.

These five functions help designers stay focused on storytelling through light.

Controllable Qualities of Light

To fulfill the above functions, lighting designers work with four primary qualities of light. Think of these as the ingredients used to shape each moment.

• Intensity: The brightness of the light, from dim to blinding. This can affect visibility, mood, and focus.
• Color: The hue or temperature of the light. Traditionally controlled through colored gels, but more commonly achieved now with LED color mixing.
• Direction: The angle from which the light hits the subject—top light, side light, backlight, front light—each creates different textures and emotional effects.
• Movement: Changes in light over time, including cue transitions, fading, chasing, or repositioning through moving lights.

Designers combine these controllable qualities to support the functions of light. For example, a sharp backlight (direction) in cool blue (color) that fades in slowly (movement) at 30% brightness (intensity) might establish a lonely nighttime scene.

Techniques for Lighting Design

Lighting design is more than just illuminating a stage—it is an essential storytelling tool that shapes mood, directs focus, and creates depth in a performance. Effective lighting design relies on a combination of technical skill, artistic vision, and an understanding of how light interacts with performers, scenery, and space. Below are key techniques that lighting designers use to craft compelling visual experiences.

The McCandless Method: Balancing Warm and Cool Tones

Developed by Stanley McCandless in the 1930s, this widely used technique involves lighting a subject from two opposing angles—each positioned 45 degrees off-axis both vertically and horizontally from the front—to create balanced illumination and sculptural depth. One light has a warm tone (amber or golden), while the other has a cool tone (blue or white). This contrast enhances the three-dimensionality of the performer’s face and body, providing a natural-looking appearance under stage conditions. The McCandless Method remains a foundation of lighting design in theatre today.

Key, Fill, and Backlight: Sculpting the Subject

Borrowed from film and photography, this three-point lighting system consists of:

• Key Light – The primary light source, defining the subject’s shape and features.
• Fill Light – A softer light that reduces shadows and controls contrast.
• Backlight (or Rim Light) – Positioned behind or above the subject to create depth and separation from the background.

This technique is particularly useful in realistic and naturalistic productions where visibility and dimensionality are critical.

Side Lighting: Enhancing Form and Movement

Side lighting is a staple in dance and movement-based performances, emphasizing the shape of the body rather than facial features. Jean Rosenthal, a pioneer of modern lighting design, championed this technique in collaboration with choreographer Martha Graham, using low-angle side lights (sometimes called "shinbusters") to highlight dancers’ movements. High-angle side lighting can be used for more dramatic effects, casting long, strik

ing shadows.

Top lighting (or downlighting) is achieved by placing fixtures directly above the stage. This technique can create a natural midday sun effect, a moody spotlight look, or deep, haunting shadows depending on the intensity and color. Designers like Jennifer Tipton have used overhead lighting masterfully in dance and theatre, shaping movement with pools of light and shadow.

Gobo Projections: Texturing the Stage

A gobo (a metal or glass template placed in front of a light source) is used to create patterns and textures on stage. Gobos can project anything from dappled sunlight through trees to intricate architectural designs, helping establish location and mood. This technique is often used in concert lighting, musicals, and abstract theatre to add layers of visual storytelling.

Color Mixing: Emotional and Psychological Effects

Color is a powerful tool in lighting design, influencing the audience’s emotions and perception of a scene. Designers use additive color mixing (combining red, green, and blue lights to create different hues) and subtractive color mixing (using gels or LED fixtures to filter light) to achieve desired effects.

• Warm colors (red, orange, yellow) can evoke warmth, passion, or tension.
• Cool colors (blue, green, purple) create calm, mystery, or melancholy.
• Contrasting colors can heighten drama and direct attention to specific areas on stage.

Cueing and Transitions: Controlling Time and Space

Lighting cues are programmed changes in intensity, color, or position that synchronize with the performance. Smooth fades, sharp blackouts, and dynamic shifts help guide the audience’s focus and influence the pacing of a scene. Modern digital lighting consoles allow designers to create intricate lighting sequences with precision and flexibility. We will cover this in more detail in the coming sections.

Intelligent and Automated Lighting: Dynamic Effects

The use of intelligent lights (such as moving heads and LED fixtures) has revolutionized stage lighting by allowing designers to adjust color, focus, gobos, and movement in real time. This technology is widely used in Broadway productions, concerts, and large-scale performances to create highly immersive and ever-changing visual landscapes.

Lighting design is both an art and a science, blending technical expertise with creative expression. By mastering these techniques, designers craft powerful, visually compelling experiences that bring stories to life on stage.

The Role of Lighting Technicians

Lighting design is a collaborative effort that requires not only artistic vision but also the technical expertise of skilled professionals who bring the design to life. Behind every well-lit stage is a team of lighting technicians who install, maintain, and operate the lighting equipment necessary for a successful production. This team typically includes general electricians, lighting technicians, and light board operators, each playing a crucial role in ensuring the lighting design functions as intended.

Lighting Designer (LD)

The Lighting Designer is responsible for creating the overall lighting concept for the production. They work closely with the director and other designers to develop a visual language that supports the storytelling. Their responsibilities include:

• Analyzing the script for lighting needs
• Creating cue sheets, plots, and light renderings
• Overseeing lighting rehearsals and cueing sessions
• Collaborating on technical rehearsals and integrating notes

Associate Lighting Designer

The Associate supports the Lighting Designer in developing and maintaining the design. This role is most common on large-scale or professional productions and may include:

• Drafting lighting plots and paperwork
• Attending meetings and rehearsals on behalf of the designer
• Helping to manage focus sessions and cue writing

Assistant Lighting Designer (ALD)

The Assistant Lighting Designer focuses on administrative, technical, and research tasks, including:

• Taking notes during rehearsal
• Preparing documentation and focus charts
• Communicating with production and electric teams
• Assisting during load-in and tech

Production Electrician (or General Electrician)

The production electrician is responsible for the physical setup and wiring of all lighting equipment. Their tasks include:

• Hanging and focusing lights according to the lighting plot.
• Running and securing power cables to ensure proper electrical distribution.
• Installing dimmers, control systems, and networking for modern lighting consoles.
• Troubleshooting electrical issues during rehearsals and performances.

Stage electricians must have a solid understanding of electrical safety, as well as familiarity with a variety of lighting instruments, including conventional fixtures, LED units, and moving lights. Their work ensures that the lighting system is properly installed and maintained throughout the production.

Lighting Technician (Followspot Operator, Deck Electrician, or Programmer)

A lighting technician is a versatile role that includes a range of specialized positions depending on the production's needs. Some of the key responsibilities of lighting technicians include:

• Operating followspots, manually tracking performers with a spotlight during live performances.
• Acting as a deck electrician, handling onstage lighting cues such as practicals (working lamps or fixtures on set) or quick fixture adjustments.
• Assisting in the programming of automated lighting cues into the control board.
• Conducting pre-show checks to ensure all fixtures are functioning correctly.

Lighting technicians often work under high-pressure conditions, particularly during live performances where quick problem-solving is essential. They may also work at great heights when rigging or adjusting lights in overhead grids or catwalks.

Light Board Programmer

The Light Board Programmer is a skilled technician who collaborates directly with the Lighting Designer to program lighting cues into the console. This role requires a deep understanding of lighting technology, console-specific syntax (e.g., ETC Eos, GrandMA, or Hog 4), and the ability to translate artistic direction into programmable data.

Key Responsibilities:

• Interpret the Lighting Designer’s artistic vision and input cues into the lighting console accordingly.Create and refine cue sequences, palettes, effects, color mixes, and movement paths (for intelligent fixtures).
• Manage groups, presets, submasters, and tracking within the console to streamline tech rehearsals.
• Troubleshoot and resolve technical issues related to programming or fixture behavior.
• Work closely with the Assistant Lighting Designer and Master Electrician to ensure cue accuracy and system functionality.

Programmers serve as the technical bridge between the designer’s creative language and the functionality of the lighting system. This position requires strong communication skills, fluency in lighting control platforms, and the ability to adapt quickly to changes during the tech process.

Light Board Operator

The Light Board Operator (also called the Lighting Console Operator) is responsible for executing lighting cues during performances. This position requires familiarity with the lighting console and close attention to timing but does not typically involve building or programming cues.

Key Responsibilities:

• Operate the lighting console during tech rehearsals and performances, following the cue list.
• Press “Go” to trigger cues at the stage manager’s call.
• Monitor the system for any unexpected issues and report them to the lighting supervisor or master electrician.
• Make basic updates or level changes as instructed (e.g., small timing shifts or channel level adjustments).
• Maintain the integrity of the programmed show file by following consistent procedures.

This role demands consistency, focus, and the ability to work calmly under pressure. It is well-suited to technicians who are organized, responsive, and comfortable with performance environments.

In large productions, particularly those using intelligent lighting and automated effects, the role of a light board operator is critical to the seamless execution of complex lighting sequences.

The Importance of Collaboration

Lighting technicians work closely with the lighting designer, the stage manager, and other technical crew members to ensure the lighting design enhances the production. Their ability to quickly adapt to changes, troubleshoot technical problems, and maintain consistency from show to show is essential to a smooth performance.

From the initial rigging of fixtures to the final cue of a live show, lighting technicians are the backbone of theatrical lighting, ensuring that every beam, fade, and color shift contributes to the magic of the stage.

Reading A Stage Light Plot

A stage light plot is a detailed technical drawing that serves as a blueprint for how lighting instruments will be positioned, focused, and controlled in a production. Created by the lighting designer, the light plot is essential for electricians, programmers, and operators to properly hang, circuit, and program the lighting system. Understanding how to read a light plot is a crucial skill for anyone working in entertainment lighting.

A light plot is a detailed, scaled drawing that visually communicates the lighting design to the production team, including the Master Electrician, electricians, and programmers. Like a ground plan for scenery, the light plot provides a comprehensive roadmap for hanging, circuiting, and focusing all lighting instruments. A complete plot includes the following key components:

1. Border

The border defines the visual edge of the drawing and helps frame all components clearly. It ensures that no essential information is cut off when printed or displayed digitally.

2. Title Block

Located in the bottom right (or occasionally along the side), the title block provides critical information about the document:

• Production Title (e.g., Into the Woods)
• Venue Name (e.g., Black Box Theatre, City College of New York)
• Drawing Title (e.g., Light Plot – Act I, Mainstage)
• Designer Name (Lighting Designer and Assistant/Associate Designers)
• Director Name
• Master Electrician Name
• Scale (e.g., 1/4” = 1’-0”)
• Date
• Plate Number and Total Plates (e.g., Plate 1 of 3)

This section ensures all collaborators are working from the correct version of the design.

3. Key to Instrumentation

This visual legend decodes the symbols used for each lighting fixture, often standardized by USITT. It typically includes:

• ERS (Ellipsoidal Reflector Spotlight) – Focused light with beam shaping shutters
• Fresnel – Soft-edged wash
• PAR Can – High-intensity oval beam
• Strip Lights / Cyc Lights
• Intelligent / Moving Lights – Including notation for pan/tilt capability
• LED Fixtures

Each symbol corresponds directly to how it appears in the physical plot.

4. Label Legend

This legend explains the abbreviations, text annotations, and shorthand used throughout the drawing. This may include:

• Channel numbers (CH)
• Dimmer or circuit numbers (D/C)
• DMX addresses (for intelligent or LED fixtures)
• Unit numbers (U#)
• Color gel codes (e.g., R60 = Roscolux #60)
• Gobo patterns
• Focus areas or lighting zones

5. Notes Section

This space allows the designer to include specific instructions, warnings, or clarifications for the production team. Examples might include:

• “All FOH units require safety cables”
• “Use R119 frost in all top light units”
• “Units 21–30 to be focused post-scenery install”

6. Physical Plot

This is the heart of the light plot, showing all elements of the lighting layout within the theatre environment.

• Theatre Architecture – Includes the proscenium arch, walls, catwalks, balcony rails, and seating layout to provide spatial context.
• Scenery Outline – The position of major scenic elements, which helps electricians understand obstructions and focus limitations.
• Lighting Positions – Clearly labeled pipes or hanging locations:

• Overhead Electrics (e.g., 1st Electric, 2nd Electric)
• Front-of-House (FOH) (e.g., catwalks, box booms)
• Booms / Trees – Vertical positions in the wings
• Floor Mounts – For uplighting, footlights, or scenic effects

• Lighting Fixtures – Accurately placed symbols for each instrument, corresponding with the Key and Label Legend.
• Fixture Information – Surrounding or attached to each symbol, including:

• Channel Number
• Dimmer/Circuit Number
• DMX Address (for LED/automated fixtures)
• Unit Number (to identify each fixture uniquely)
• Color / Gobo Notation
• Focus Area / Purpose (e.g., “DS Center Special” or “Cyc Wash R”)

Magic Sheet (Supplemental)

Though not part of the formal light plot, a Magic Sheet is often included as a companion document. It provides a simplified, designer-friendly view of lighting channels grouped by purpose (e.g., front light, high sides, color washes, specials) to help with quick reference during tech and programming.

How to Interpret and Use a Light Plot

• Electricians & Technicians use the plot to hang, focus, and circuit lights according to the designer’s plan.
• Programmers reference the plot to assign channels, colors, and effects in the lighting console.
• Light Board Operators use the plot to understand cueing and how each fixture contributes to the overall look of the show.

By mastering how to read a stage light plot, lighting professionals can effectively translate a designer’s vision into a fully realized stage production.

How to Hang a Light

Hanging a light safely and efficiently is a crucial skill in lighting design. The steps include:

1. Positioning: Identify where the light should be placed based on the lighting plot.
2. Securing the Fixture: Attach the light to the batten or grid using a C-clamp or other mounting hardware.
3. Tightening and Safety: Secure the clamp tightly and attach a safety cable as a backup.
4. Aiming and Focusing: Adjust the light’s position and lock it in place.
5. Power Connection: Plug the fixture into a circuit or dimmer.
6. Labeling: Clearly mark lights for easy identification during programming.

Connecting Lights to a Board

Once the lights are hung, they must be connected to a control system:

1. Assigning Circuits: Each fixture is plugged into a circuit that links to a dimmer or power source.
2. Patching: The dimmers are assigned to channels on the lighting console.
3. DMX Connection: Digital Multiplex (DMX) cables connect intelligent fixtures and LEDs to the control board for programming.

Programming a Light Board

Modern lighting control systems allow designers to pre-program cues and transitions. Steps include:

1. Patching Fixtures: Assign each light to a channel in the board’s software.
2. Setting Levels: Adjust intensity, color, and position for each cue.
3. Recording Cues: Save specific lighting looks as cues that can be recalled during the performance.
4. Building Transitions: Set fade times and crossfades for smooth scene changes.

Operating a Light Board

During a live performance, the lighting operator executes the cues:

1. Following the Cue Sheet: Operate the board according to the stage manager’s call.
2. Running Cues Smoothly: Press “Go” at the appropriate moments to transition lighting states.
3. Monitoring for Issues: Adjust if necessary to maintain consistency and safety.

Lighting Console Overview: ETC Ion Xe, GrandMA, and Hog 4

Modern lighting control consoles are powerful tools that enable designers and programmers to manipulate intensity, color, movement, timing, and effects across a wide range of fixtures. While each console brand has unique features and workflows, most professional consoles share a set of core capabilities.

Popular Consoles in Theatrical Use

• ETC Ion Xe

• Widely used in educational and regional theatre.
• Ideal for conventional fixtures and moderate intelligent light programming.
• Uses the Eos Family software, known for its intuitive syntax and deep integration with ETC dimming systems.

• GrandMA (MA2 / MA3)

• Common in concert, touring, and large-scale professional venues.
• Highly customizable with a steep learning curve.
• Offers robust control over large numbers of moving lights and complex effects.

• Hog 4 (High End Systems)

• Popular in touring, events, and some theatrical environments.
• Known for its flexible cue structures and fast playback.
• Features a touchscreen-heavy interface with strong support for busking live shows.

Though their interfaces differ, most consoles support similar workflows: creating show files, patching fixtures, controlling intensity, building looks, and recording cues or effects.

Why Console Knowledge Matters

Lighting designers may not always program their own shows, but understanding console capabilities helps them communicate with programmers, troubleshoot issues, and design efficiently. Choosing the right console can depend on venue size, fixture types, production complexity, and personal or institutional familiarity.

Using an ETC Ion Xe for Lighting Programming

The ETC Ion Xe is a widely used lighting console in theatrical productions. It provides robust control over conventional and intelligent lighting. Below are essential steps for programming and running a show:

Patching Lights

1. Press [Patch] to enter patch mode.
2. Use the keypad to enter the fixture number, then press [Enter].
3. Assign a DMX address by typing the number and pressing [Enter].
4. Repeat for all fixtures, then press [Live] to exit patch mode.

Parking Lights

1. Enter [Park], then type the channel number.
2. Press [Enter] to hold the light at its current value.
3. To unpark, enter [Park], then type the channel and [At] [Enter].

Programming Cues

1. Set desired levels using the keypad or encoder wheels.
2. Press [Record], then enter a cue number.
3. Press [Enter] to save the cue.
4. Repeat for additional cues.

Adjusting Cue Timing

1. Press [Cue] followed by the cue number.
2. Press [Time] and enter the desired fade duration.
3. Press [Enter] to apply the timing change.

Using Effects

1. Press [Effect], then choose an effect number.
2. Assign it to a channel by pressing [Enter].
3. Adjust effect parameters using soft keys and encoders.

Running a Show

1. Load the first cue by pressing [Go].
2. Follow the cue sheet and press [Go] for each transition.
3. Use [Go Back] if a mistake is made.
4. Adjust live levels if necessary, by selecting a channel and using the encoders.

Programming a Show on a GrandMA Light Board

The GrandMA series of lighting consoles, developed by MA Lighting, is widely regarded as one of the most powerful and flexible control systems in the industry. Used extensively in theatre, concerts, and large-scale events, the GrandMA family (including GrandMA2 and GrandMA3) provides an intuitive interface for controlling both conventional and intelligent lighting fixtures.

Setting Up the Show File

Before programming begins, the first step is to set up a new show file:

1. Start a New Show – Upon powering on the console, create a new show file by selecting Setup → Show → New Show.
2. Patching Fixtures – Navigate to Patch & Fixture Schedule to add lighting fixtures. The console includes an extensive fixture library, allowing users to assign correct DMX addresses, universes, and fixture types.
3. Setting Up Groups – Once patched, fixtures should be organized into Groups (e.g., “Front Wash,” “Backlight,” “Moving Heads”) to streamline programming.

Creating Presets and Cues

1. Presets – GrandMA allows for creating presets (for color, position, intensity, beam effects, etc.), which act as reusable building blocks when programming cues. These can be accessed through the preset pools.
2. Cue Stacking – Cues are programmed into the Sequence Executor, where they are triggered in sequence during the show. Each cue can contain lighting information for different fixtures.
3. Tracking and Cue Timing – GrandMA uses a tracking system, meaning lighting changes persist unless manually overridden. Users can adjust fade times and delay times within the cue to create smooth transitions.

Executing the Show

During the performance, cues are triggered through the Playback Executors, which can be assigned to faders or buttons. GrandMA’s Timecode Synchronization feature is frequently used in concerts and large-scale productions to sync lighting cues with audio and video content.

The GrandMA3 introduces phasers, an advanced movement and effect engine, which allows for intricate light chases, position sweeps, and dynamic effects with minimal programming effort.

Programming a Show on a Hog Light Board

Hog lighting consoles, originally developed by High End Systems, are known for their powerful, user-friendly interface. The Hog 4 series is particularly popular in live music, theatrical productions, and corporate events.

Setting Up the Show File

1. Starting a New Show – Upon booting up the Hog console, select New Show or load an existing template for faster setup.
2. Patching Fixtures – Access the Patch window to assign DMX addresses, universes, and fixture types. Hog’s library supports most industry-standard fixtures.
3. Creating Groups and Palettes – To speed up programming, fixture Groups and Palettes (for color, position, and intensity) should be defined in the Programmer window.

Programming Cues and Effects

1. Building Cues – Cues are stored in the Playback Bar, which acts as the show’s timeline. The Hog Programmer allows for precise cue recording, with fade times, follow cues, and cue stacking capabilities.
2. Effects Engine – The Hog Effects Engine is used to create chases, sweeps, and movement effects. The Rate Wheel enables quick speed adjustments during a performance.
3. Cue Lists and Scenes – A cue list is a sequential set of cues, while scenes are static lighting looks. Scenes can be assigned to faders for live operation.

Executing the Show

Hog consoles offer flexible playback options. Operators can run cues manually via Go buttons or use Timecode Synchronization for automated execution. The Learn Timing feature allows for real-time programming adjustments, making Hog consoles a favorite for fast-paced live events.

ETC Ions, GrandMA and Hog consoles are industry standards, each offering powerful tools for programming and executing lighting in theatrical, concert, and broadcast settings. While GrandMA is favored for complex, timecoded shows, Hog and ETC Ions excel in live operation flexibility. Mastering both systems is a valuable skill for any professional lighting programmer.

Creating a Light Cue List and Using It in a Show

A light cue list is a sequential roadmap of all lighting changes that occur during a performance. Each cue represents a specific lighting look or transition, timed precisely to the action on stage. The cue list is essential for smooth execution, ensuring that every lighting shift enhances the storytelling and maintains consistency from rehearsal to performance.

Creating a Light Cue List

The process of building a light cue list begins during technical rehearsals, where the lighting designer works with the director and stage manager to determine the timing and execution of each lighting change. The steps to create a cue list include:

1. Identifying Cue Points

• Cues are usually triggered at key moments in the script, such as:

• Scene changes
• Emotional shifts
• Special effects (lightning, fire, magic)
• Musical beats or choreography
• Actor entrances/exits

• The stage manager and lighting team mark cue points in the script or cue sheet, assigning each a number (e.g., Cue 1, Cue 2, Cue 3…).

2. Recording Cues in the Lighting Console

• Each cue is programmed into the lighting console (e.g., GrandMA, ETC Eos, or Hog 4).
• Designers adjust:

• Intensity levels (brightness of fixtures)
• Color and gel changes (if using LEDs or scrollers)
• Positioning and focus (for moving lights)
• Timing (fade-in, fade-out, crossfades)
• Effects (gobos, chases, strobes, pixel mapping)

• Once programmed, cues are stored in a cue stack or cue list on the console.

3. Assigning Timing and Transitions

• Fade times control how quickly lights change from one cue to the next (e.g., 5-second fade, 0-second snap blackout).
• Follow and Autofollow cues allow cues to trigger automatically after a preset duration.
• Bumps or Hits refer to quick flashes or intensity changes, often manually triggered by the operator.

Using a Light Cue List in a Show

During the performance, the light board operator follows the cue list in coordination with the stage manager’s calling of the show.

1. Running Cues with the Stage Manager

• The stage manager calls cues using phrases like:

• “Standby Light Cue 15” (Warning the operator to prepare)
• “Go” (Trigger the cue immediately)

• The light board operator follows these calls and executes cues by pressing the GO button or manually adjusting levels if necessary.

2. Adjusting for Live Performance

• Actor pacing or line delivery can shift cue timing slightly, so operators must be attentive.
• Manual overrides may be needed if a light malfunctions or timing needs adjustment.
• Backup plans (e.g., duplicate cue lists, redundant systems) help in case of technical issues.

3. Ensuring Consistency

• Before each show, the operator performs a pre-show lighting check to confirm that all cues, intensities, and fixtures are functioning correctly.
• Running the same cue list every night maintains the artistic integrity of the production.

A well-crafted cue list is the foundation of professional lighting execution, ensuring that every transition enhances the performance while maintaining precision and reliability.

Conclusion

Lighting design is both a technical and artistic discipline, requiring careful planning and execution. Mastering the tools, techniques, and principles outlined in this chapter provides a solid foundation for effective stage lighting. Whether illuminating a dramatic moment or enhancing a musical spectacle, the power of light shapes the theatrical experience.

Showcase your Learning

Assignment Objective:

Students will demonstrate their knowledge of Lighting design by creating a Lighting Design for a play you have read.

Assignment Rationale:

As designers and technicians, it's important to understand how to creatively design scenery.

Choose your Assignment:

Choose one of the options below to showcase your learning.

1. Paper Design: Using paper and your favorite drawing mediums create a Lighting design for one scene from a play you have read that includes: title block, rendering, light plot, and why you’ve made the choices you’ve made.
2. Digital Design: Using a computer program or design app (LightLabs or Vectorworks) create a scenic design for one scene from a play you have read that includes: title block, rendering, light plot, and why you’ve made the choices you’ve made.
3. Physical Lights: Using lights around your house and flashlights create a lighting design for one scene from a play you have read that includes: title block, rendering, light plot, and why you’ve made the choices you’ve made. You will take a picture of the design.
4. Pastel Technique: Using black paper that you’ve printed or drawn a person on to, use pastels to create a light design for one scene from a play you have read that includes:  title block, rendering, light plot, and why you’ve made the choices you’ve made.
5. Digital Collage: Using Google Slides or Powerpoint create a light design for one scene from a play you have read that includes:  title block, rendering, light plot, and why you’ve made the choices you’ve made. (Life Hack: Use remove.bg to remove the pesky background in images)
6. Photo Collage: Find spot in the world. Take a picture of its unique light. Then create a light plot to suit the needs of that area. This must include:  title block, rendering, light plot, and why you’ve made the choices you’ve made. (Life Hack: Use remove.bg to remove the pesky background in images)
7. Roll the Dice! Let the fates decide.

All designs must include the following:

• Complete Title Block
• One Rendering
• Light Plot
• Reflection: Why did you make the decisions you’ve made?

Key Terms

Additive Color Mixing – A method of creating color by combining red, green, and blue light. Used in LED lighting to produce a full range of colors.

Backlight – A light source positioned behind a subject to create separation from the background and add depth to the scene.

Cyc Lights (Cyclorama Lights) – Fixtures designed to evenly illuminate large backdrops or cycloramas with washes of color.

DMX (Digital Multiplex) – A protocol used to control lighting fixtures digitally, allowing communication between a light board and intelligent or LED fixtures.

Ellipsoidal Reflector Spotlight (ERS) – A highly focused lighting instrument that produces sharp-edged beams, often used for specials and spotlighting.

Fade Time – The duration it takes for a lighting change to complete, often used to transition between lighting cues.

Followspot – A manually operated spotlight used to track performers during a live show.

Footlights – Early stage lighting placed along the front edge of the stage, originally candles or gas lamps, casting an upward glow.

Fresnel – A soft-edged lighting fixture ideal for general washes and blending with other lights.

Gobo – A metal or glass template inserted into a light to project patterns, textures, or images onto scenery or actors.

Intelligent Lights (Moving Lights) – Programmable fixtures capable of changing position, color, focus, and effects during a performance.

Jennifer Tipton – A renowned lighting designer known for her work in dance and theatre, especially for using top lighting to create mood.

Key Light – The primary light source in a three-point lighting setup, shaping the subject's visibility and form.

LED Fixtures – Energy-efficient lighting units capable of producing a wide spectrum of colors without the need for gels.

Light Cue – A pre-programmed lighting change (intensity, color, position, effect) executed during a performance to support the storytelling.

Lighting Console (Light Board) – A control system used to program and operate stage lighting cues during a performance.

Lighting Plot – A technical drawing that maps out the placement, type, and purpose of each lighting fixture in a production.

Magic Sheet – A simplified guide that organizes lighting channels by purpose or location for quick reference by programmers and operators.

McCandless Method – A foundational lighting design technique that uses warm and cool lights at 45° angles to create depth and natural-looking illumination.

Moving Light – Another term for intelligent light, referring to a fixture capable of panning, tilting, zooming, and changing color.

PAR Can (Parabolic Aluminized Reflector) – A powerful, directional lighting instrument used for bold color washes or strong beams.

Patch/Patching – The process of assigning each lighting fixture to a specific channel or DMX address in the lighting control system.

Projection (Lighting/Scenic) – The use of projected images or light patterns to enhance scenery or storytelling through visual media.

Rim Light – Also called backlight; it creates an outline of light around the subject, adding separation and depth.

Rosenthal, Jean – A pioneer in modern stage lighting and the use of sidelight, especially in dance.

Sidelight – Lighting placed at the sides of the stage, used to sculpt the human form and enhance movement.

Spotlight – A focused light used to highlight a performer or specific area onstage, often operated manually.

Stanley McCandless – Considered the father of modern lighting design; developed the McCandless Method for theatrical illumination.

Strip Lights – Long lighting units with multiple lamps used to light large areas like backdrops or cycloramas.

Top Light – A fixture placed directly above a subject, used to simulate overhead lighting like the sun or interior lights.

Transition – A change in lighting state or cue, often aligned with scene changes or emotional shifts in the performance.

Warm and Cool Light – Lighting color temperatures; warm light includes amber or red hues, while cool light includes blue or white tones.

Working Light – Basic lighting used during rehearsals or scene changes, not part of the final production design.

WYSIWYG (What You See Is What You Get) – A lighting design software that allows users to previsualize lighting effects digitally before programming them on stage.

Video Resources

• Intro to Theatrical Lighting – Madison provides an introduction to theatrical lighting concepts.
• Introduction to Terminology (Lighting a Stage Chapter 1) – Explains basic lighting terminology and concepts.

Practical Pedagogy

References

Appia, A. (1962). The Work of Living Art and Man is the Measure of All Things (D. Gobert, Trans.). University of Miami Press. (Original works published 1899 & 1908)

Bellman, H. (2016). Theatre: Brief version (11th ed.). Pearson.

Brockett, O. G., & Hildy, F. J. (2014). History of the theatre (11th ed.). Pearson.

Drummond, T. (1826). On the Use of the Limelight in Surveying and Theatre. Royal Society Archives.

Gillette, J. M. (2019). Theatrical design and production: An introduction to scene design and construction, lighting, sound, costume, and makeup (8th ed.). McGraw-Hill Education.

McCandless, S. (1932). A method of lighting the stage. Theatre Arts Books.

Pilbrow, R. (2013). Stage lighting design: The art, the craft, the life (2nd ed.). Nick Hern Books.

Rosenthal, J., & Rendell, L. (1972). The magic of light: The craft and career of Jean Rosenthal, pioneer in lighting for the modern stage. Little, Brown and Company.

Shelley, S. (2013). A practical guide to stage lighting (3rd ed.). Focal Press.

Tipton, J. (n.d.). Interviews and design insights. [Referenced in secondary sources on lighting design for dance and theatre.]

USITT (United States Institute for Theatre Technology). (2020). Recommended practice for theatrical lighting design. USITT Publications.

Vari-Lite, Inc. (1981). Automated lighting technology introduction and user manual. Dallas, TX: Vari-Lite Archives.