Chapter 5:
Creating the Physical World: Scenic Design and Construction
Creating the World
The time has come. Your blank page and pencil become a conduit for your imagination. Scenic design plays a crucial role in establishing the visual language and atmosphere of a theatrical production. It helps shape the audience's perception of the story by creating an environment that reflects the themes, characters, and action. To develop effective scenery, scenic designers use artistic and technical tools, working closely with directors and other designers to bring a unified vision to life. Several key elements and documents are integral to the scenic design, including plans, renderings, sketches, elevations, and construction drawings.
The History of Scenic Design
Scenic design, or set design, is a crucial aspect of theatre that shapes the visual and spatial environment of a performance. Throughout history, scenic design has evolved in response to artistic movements, technological advancements, and shifting theatrical conventions.
Ancient and Classical Scenic Design
The earliest known stage designs date back to Ancient Greece, where theatre was performed in large amphitheaters with minimal scenery. Greek theatres relied on architectural elements like the skene (a backdrop building) and painted periaktoi (rotating triangular prisms) to suggest different locations. In Rome, more elaborate stage buildings and mechanical devices were introduced, but scenic design remained relatively simple.
Medieval and Renaissance Scenic Innovations
During the medieval period, theatre was largely performed in church settings and on pageant wagons. These portable stages featured simple scenic elements depicting biblical scenes. With the Renaissance came a renewed interest in perspective and realism, leading to the development of painted backdrops and sophisticated stage machinery. Italian designer Sebastiano Serlio (1475–1554) was instrumental in introducing perspective painting to theatre, influencing future scenic design.
The Baroque Era and the Rise of Illusionism
The Baroque period (17th century) saw grand, illusionistic scenery designed to enhance dramatic storytelling. The Italian architect and designer Giacomo Torelli (1608–1678) developed the chariot-and-pole system, which allowed for seamless scene changes using hidden tracks beneath the stage. This innovation set the stage for more dynamic and visually stunning productions.
19th-Century Realism and Naturalism
The rise of realism in theatre during the 19th century led to more detailed and historically accurate scenic designs. The advent of gas and later electric lighting further enhanced the ability to create atmospheric and immersive settings. Adolphe Appia (1862–1928) revolutionized scenic design by emphasizing the importance of three-dimensional space, dynamic lighting, and actor interaction with the set. Meanwhile, Edward Gordon Craig (1872–1966) championed abstract and symbolic scenic elements, challenging the strict realism of the time.
20th-Century Innovations and Modern Scenic Design
The 20th century saw a range of new approaches to scenic design, influenced by artistic movements such as Expressionism, Constructivism, and Minimalism. Designers like Josef Svoboda (1920–2002) pioneered the use of multimedia, projection, and kinetic scenery, pushing the boundaries of theatrical space. The rise of digital technology has further expanded possibilities for scenic designers, allowing for highly flexible and interactive environments.
Notable Scenic Designers
- Adolphe Appia (1862–1928): Known for his theories on lighting and three-dimensional stage space, Appia rejected flat painted backdrops in favor of sculptural, adaptable sets.
- Edward Gordon Craig (1872–1966): A visionary designer who emphasized stylized, abstract sets and movable screens to enhance theatrical expression.
- Josef Svoboda (1920–2002): A Czech designer who innovated with projection, lighting, and kinetic scenery to create dynamic stage environments.
- Ming Cho Lee (1930–2020): A pioneering American scenic designer who reshaped Broadway and educational theatre with his minimalist yet expressive designs.
- Julie Taymor (b. 1952): Known for her work on The Lion King, Taymor incorporates puppetry, masks, and striking visual elements into her scenic and production design.
- Christine Jones (b. 1962): An innovative designer recognized for her work on American Idiot, for which she won the 2010 Tony Award for Best Scenic Design of a Musical.
- Scott Pask (b. 1963): A versatile designer who received the 2011 Tony Award for Best Scenic Design of a Musical for The Book of Mormon.
- David Zinn (b. 1970): A contemporary designer celebrated for his versatile and innovative work, Zinn won Tony Awards for Best Scenic Design of a Play for Stereophonic in 2024 and for a Musical with SpongeBob SquarePants in 2018.
- Beowulf Boritt (b. 1971): An acclaimed designer who won the 2023 Tony Award for Best Scenic Design of a Musical for New York, New York.
- Tom Scutt (b. 1983): A British designer who received the 2024 Tony Award for Best Scenic Design of a Musical for Cabaret at the Kit Kat Club.
Scenic design continues to evolve, with contemporary designers integrating digital projections, immersive environments, and interactive elements to create innovative and engaging theatrical experiences.
Scenic Paperwork
Overall Sketches are quick, informal drawings used in the early stages of design to explore different concepts and ideas. They help the scenic designer brainstorm and communicate initial visions without committing to finalized details. Designers often produce multiple rough sketches before narrowing down the best approach. These sketches can be shared with directors for feedback to ensure alignment with the overall production concept.
A rendering is a fully detailed, colored illustration that presents the set, costume, or design element as it will appear from the audience’s perspective. Unlike ground plans or technical drawings, renderings emphasize artistic style, texture, and color choices to communicate the mood and overall aesthetic of the design. They are an essential tool for collaboration, helping directors, performers, and other designers visualize the world of the play. Renderings can be created by hand using pencils, markers, and watercolors, or digitally through programs like SketchUp, AutoCAD, or Photoshop. Whether hand-drawn or digital, they often include perspective drawing techniques to reflect depth and proportion, even though they are not typically drawn to scale. Because they provide such a clear visual reference, renderings are used across all areas of design and will appear throughout the theatrical design process.
A ground plan is a top-view, scaled drawing showing the layout of the set within the theatre space. It indicates the positioning of major scenic elements such as walls, platforms, furniture, and entrances. This drawing allows directors, actors, and the technical crew to understand spatial relationships and blocking. To create a ground plan, designers must first measure the stage dimensions and consider sightlines to ensure all scenic elements are visible to the audience. Using grid paper or digital drafting software, like AutoCAD and Vectoworks, helps maintain accurate scaling.
Elevations are scaled, front-view drawings of the set or individual scenic units. Unlike ground plans, elevations show the vertical dimensions, including heights of platforms, doors, and windows. Designers typically create both front and rear elevations to provide a complete understanding of the set’s construction. Elevations are essential for translating two-dimensional plans into three-dimensional structures.
Construction drawings are technical diagrams used by the scene shop to build the set. These drawings include precise measurements, materials specifications, and detailed views of individual pieces. Construction drawings must be clear and accurate to ensure efficient and safe building processes. Often created using drafting software, they guide carpenters and other technicians in assembling each component.
It’s important to create a cut list to guide you through the building process. This list tells you the measurements of all the physical cuts you will need to make in the wood. Just like any recipe, you will want your steps written out, so including a cut list and the materials you need will get you moving quickly.
You’ll notice that each of these drawings has a box in the corner with information about the drawing. This is your Title Block. A title block is used to ensure you are looking at the correct, most recent iteration of the drawing in question. It should include the name of the company, the name of the play, the names of the designer, director, technical director, and drafter, the scale, and the file name. The title block also includes a section that allows you to identify how many drawings you have in total. Each of these drawings is called a plate. You will label the platesbased on their relationship to each other. If this drawing is for the first scene in a play five scenes, you would label it 1 of 5.
Successful scenic design depends on collaboration with the director, lighting designer, costume designer, and other members of the creative team. The scenic designer must understand the director’s vision and work closely to create a cohesive world that supports the storytelling. Regular production meetings are vital to ensure all design elements work in harmony. The designer must also communicate with technical directors and carpenters to address feasibility, budget constraints, and construction timelines. This collaborative approach fosters a unified production that integrates visual, spatial, and dramatic elements seamlessly.
Scenic design combines artistic creativity with technical precision, requiring both conceptual imagination and practical problem-solving. By mastering these tools and fostering strong communication, designers create immersive environments that bring theatrical worlds to life.
Drawing in Scale
In scenic design, drawing in scale is an essential skill that allows designers and production teams to accurately visualize and construct the set within a specific space. Scale drawings provide a proportional representation of scenery, ensuring elements fit correctly on stage and integrate seamlessly with lighting, blocking, and technical requirements.
Understanding Scale
Scale refers to the ratio between the drawing size and the actual size of the scenic element. The most commonly used scales in theatre design include 1/4 inch = 1 foot (1:48) for ground plans and elevations, 1/2 inch = 1 foot (1:24) for more detailed technical drawings, and 1/8 inch = 1 foot (1:96) for large set overviews or entire stage layouts. Using a consistent scale throughout a project ensures proportionality across platforms, walls, furniture, and props.
Tools for the Job
To create accurate scale drawings, scenic designers rely on both manual and digital tools. Architect’s and engineer’s scales—specialized rulers—help translate measurements with precision. Graph paper, drafting templates, and stencils assist with clean lines and consistent symbols. In digital drafting, programs like AutoCAD, Vectorworks, and SketchUp offer features for precise scaling, quick edits, and even 3D modeling.
Getting Started
Start your scaled drawing by selecting the most appropriate scale based on your stage dimensions and the level of detail needed. Establish a reference point, such as the proscenium line, centerline, or upstage wall, and work outward from there. Use grids or guides to maintain alignment and proportion. Convert real-world measurements to scaled equivalents and double-check your math for accuracy.
Label Clearly
As you draw, make sure to annotate key dimensions, materials, and notes that will help the build team understand your design. Consistent labeling supports clearer communication and prevents errors during construction.
Why It Matters
Scale drawings are more than just a drafting exercise—they are a shared language between designers, directors, carpenters, and technicians. They help identify spatial conflicts, inform budget and material planning, and provide a clear roadmap from design concept to opening night. Mastering this skill empowers designers to translate imagination into functional, buildable reality.
Construction
Building the set is where designs become tangible. Basic principles include:
- Material Selection: Choose durable and lightweight materials like plywood and steel.
- Joinery Techniques: Use screws, bolts, and brackets to create strong connections.
- Weight Distribution: Design structures to evenly distribute weight to avoid collapse.
Platforms
Platforms provide elevation and can add depth to a set. Consider the following:
- Framing: Use 2x4 lumber or metal tubing for the frame.
- Decking: Plywood is commonly used as the surface material.
- Legs and Bracing: Secure legs with cross-bracing for stability.
- Load Capacity: Ensure the platform can safely support actors and props.
Flats
Flats are lightweight, framed panels used to create walls or backdrops. Key types include:
- Broadway Flats: Built with a wood or metal frame and covered in muslin or luan.
- Hollywood Flats: Constructed with a thicker frame for rigidity.
- Assembly: Use corner blocks and keystones for traditional wood flats.
Staircases
Staircases add vertical movement and visual interest. Design considerations include:
- Rise and Run: Ensure steps are uniform and adhere to building codes.
- Material: Use sturdy materials like plywood for treads and risers.
- Attachment: Securely anchor staircases to platforms or the stage floor.
Moving Scenery
Dynamic sets often require moving elements. Options include:
- Wagons: Platforms on wheels for rolling scenery.
- Fly Systems: Counterweight systems for raising and lowering scenic elements.
- Turntables: Rotating platforms for seamless scene changes.
- Automation: Motorized systems for precise movement.
Scenic Painting
Scenic painting transforms raw materials into works of art. Techniques include:
- Base Coating: Apply a solid base color to prepare the surface.
- Texturing: Use sponges, brushes, or rollers for effects like brick, wood grain, or marble.
- Highlighting and Shading: Add depth and dimension with lighter and darker tones.
- Sealant: Protect the finished surface with a clear sealant.
Drops and Drapes
In theatrical design, drops and drapes are essential tools for shaping space, hiding offstage areas, and supporting scenic transformations. These soft goods—usually made of fabric—can be purely decorative, entirely functional, or both. They help define the playing space, control sightlines, and influence the mood or atmosphere of a production.
Understanding the types and functions of each type of drop and drape allows designers to make informed choices about how to dress the stage for maximum impact and flexibility.
Painted Drops
Painted drops are large, usually muslin backdrops that hang upstage and are painted with scenic elements such as landscapes, interiors, or abstract textures. Drops are often flown in and out for scene changes and can instantly transform the location or tone of a moment. They are especially common in musicals and traditional proscenium shows.
Some productions use cut-and-net drops—painted drops with cut-out sections that are reinforced with netting to create a sense of depth or transparency. These allow for layered visual effects and can reveal action behind the drop when lit properly.
Borders and Teasers
Borders (also called teasers) are short, wide drapes that hang above the stage to mask overhead lighting instruments and rigging from the audience’s view. They define the visual top edge of the stage picture.
Borders are usually paired with legs to frame the stage and create a consistent “portal” for the audience’s view. They are typically black to absorb light and minimize distraction.
Legs and Tormentors
Legs are tall, narrow drapes that hang at the sides of the stage. They serve to mask the wings and create vertical lines that shape the stage's visible width. Adjusting the placement of legs can alter the perceived size of the performance area.
Tormentors are hard or soft framed panels placed just upstage of the proscenium arch. They often work with teasers to complete the false proscenium and help focus the audience’s attention on the stage.
The Grand Drape and Valance
The grand drape (also called the main curtain) is the large, often decorative curtain that covers the full proscenium opening. It traditionally opens and closes at the start and end of a performance, during intermission, or for dramatic effect.
The valance (or grand valance) is a short drape made of the same fabric as the grand drape. It hangs across the top of the proscenium and helps frame the main curtain while hiding rigging and lighting just above it.
Scrim
A scrim is a special type of fabric that appears opaque or transparent depending on how it is lit. When lit from the front, it looks solid—perfect for hiding actors or scenery behind it. When lit from behind, it becomes see-through, revealing what’s hidden. Scrims are often used for dream sequences, reveals, or ghostly effects.
Cyclorama (Cyc)
The cyclorama, or cyc, is a large, seamless curtain that stretches across the upstage wall, usually white or light gray in color. Its primary purpose is to serve as a projection surface or a canvas for colorful lighting washes. With the right lighting, a cyc can become a sky, an abstract field of color, or a backdrop for video effects.
Conclusion
Scenic design is where storytelling meets structure. It’s the art of shaping space, conjuring mood, and crafting meaning through visual and physical environments. From the first pencil sketch to the final brushstroke on a platform, each design choice reflects your interpretation of the script, your collaboration with the team, and your imagination as an artist. By understanding historical traditions, mastering technical tools, and embracing creative risk, you have the power to transform empty stages into living worlds. Whether you're building platforms, painting backdrops, flying in drapes, or sketching a set from scratch, remember scenic design is not just about what the audience sees—it's about how they feel when the curtain rises.
Showcase your Learning
Assignment Objective:
Students will demonstrate their knowledge of Scenic design by creating a scenic design for a play you have read.
Assignment Rationale:
As designers and technicians, it's important to understand how to creatively design scenery.
Choose your Assignment:
Choose one of the options below to showcase your learning.
- Paper Design: Using paper and your favorite drawing mediums create a scenic design for one scene from a play you have read that includes: title block, rendering, ground plan, and reflection.
- Digital Design: Using a computer program or design app create a scenic design for one scene from a play you have read that includes: title block, rendering, ground plan, and reflection.
- Gamified Design: Using your favorite building game (ala Roblox, Minecraft) create a scenic design for one scene from a play you have read that includes: title block, rendering, ground plan, and reflection.
- Collage Design: Pulling from different magazines create a scenic design for one scene from a play you have read that includes: title block, rendering, ground plan, and reflection.
- Digital Collage: Using Google Slides or Powerpoint create a digital collage pulling images from the internet to create a scenic design for one scene from a play you have read that includes: title block, rendering, ground plan, and reflection.
- Build A Model: Build a scale model for one scene from a play you have read that includes: title block, rendering, ground plan, and reflection.
- Roll the Dice! Let the fates decide.
All designs must include the following:
- Complete Title Block
- One Rendering
- One Ground Plan (drawn to scale)
- A one-page reflection of how you used the Elements and Principles of Design to enhance the storytelling.
Key Terms
Adolphe Appia – A 19th-century scenic designer known for his theories on three-dimensional stage space and dynamic lighting.
Automation – Mechanized or motorized movement systems used to control scenic elements such as lifts, turntables, or curtains during a production.
Band Saw – A power saw with a looped blade used for cutting curves and irregular shapes in wood or other materials.
Base Coating – The initial layer of paint applied to scenery to create a uniform background before adding texture or detail.
Broadway Flat – A type of theatrical flat built with framing on the back and covered with muslin or luan, designed to be lightweight and easy to fly.
Christine Jones – A Tony Award-winning scenic designer known for her work on American Idiot and immersive environments.
Construction Drawing – A detailed, scaled diagram used by carpenters and builders that includes measurements, materials, and building methods for set pieces.
Cut List – A document that outlines the dimensions and number of all wood or materials to be cut for a specific scenic build.
David Zinn – A contemporary scenic designer known for innovative designs in productions such as SpongeBob SquarePants and Stereophonic.
Elevation – A scaled drawing that shows the front view of a scenic element or full set, including vertical measurements.
Edward Gordon Craig – An early 20th-century designer known for abstract, stylized scenic design and his use of movable screens.
Fly System – A rigging system used to raise and lower scenery, lighting, or curtains, typically involving counterweights and pulleys.
Ground Plan – A top-down, scaled drawing of the set layout that shows walls, furniture, platforms, and entrances relative to the theatre space.
Hollywood Flat – A type of flat with framing on edge, built for durability and often used in film and TV or when rigidity is required.
Josef Svoboda – A Czech scenic designer noted for his use of projection, multimedia, and kinetic elements in stage design.
Julie Taymor – A renowned designer and director known for incorporating masks, puppetry, and bold visual elements in productions like The Lion King.
Kinetic Scenery – Moving set elements used to enhance visual storytelling, often powered manually or by automation.
Ming Cho Lee – Influential American scenic designer recognized for his abstract and minimalist design work on Broadway and in academic settings.
Moving Scenery – Scenic units that can be shifted during a performance, including wagons, turntables, and flown elements.
Platform – A raised, often mobile surface used in scenic construction to create levels and depth onstage.
Rendering – A detailed, colored visual representation of a scenic design, showing how the set will look to the audience.
Scale Drawing – A proportional drawing that translates real-world measurements into a smaller format, commonly used in drafting scenic designs.
Scenic Designer – A theatre artist responsible for creating the visual environment of a play, including sets, props, and often collaboration on spatial elements.
Scenic Painting – The artistic process of painting scenery to simulate textures, environments, or realism (e.g., brick, marble, wood grain).
Scott Pask – A Tony-winning scenic designer known for his work on The Book of Mormon and a variety of Broadway productions.
Sebastiano Serlio – A Renaissance designer who introduced perspective painting techniques to theatrical scenery.
Sketch – A quick, informal drawing used to explore early design ideas and communicate visual concepts before finalizing plans.
Staircase – A scenic element that includes steps and risers, used to create vertical movement on stage. Must be constructed to be safe and uniform.
Svoboda, Josef – Innovator in scenic design known for integrating modern technology such as projections and movable elements.
Technical Director – A theatre professional responsible for turning scenic designs into constructed sets, managing logistics, budget, and safety.
Title Block – A label on technical drawings that includes production details like the play title, designer’s name, scale, and drawing number.
Tom Scutt – A British scenic designer known for award-winning work on Cabaret at the Kit Kat Club.
Turntable – A rotating platform used on stage to change scenery or create dynamic movement.
Wagon – A rolling platform used to move scenery on and off stage efficiently.
Video Resources
- How We Made It | Phaedra's Five Sets in One – Behind-the-scenes look at complex set design at the National Theatre.
- National Theatre: Set Design Playlist – Series of videos exploring various aspects of set design.
Practical Pedagogy
References
Aronson, A. (2005). Looking into the abyss: Essays on scenography. University of Michigan Press.
Brockett, O. G., & Hildy, F. J. (2013). History of the theatre (10th ed.). Pearson.
Gillette, J. M. (2019). Theatrical design and production (8th ed.). McGraw-Hill Education.
Innes, C. D. (2013). Edward Gordon Craig: A vision of theatre. Routledge.
Jones, C. (2010). Scenic design for American Idiot. Retrieved from BroadwayWorld.com.
Parker, W. O., Wolf, R. C., & Block, D. (2009). Scene design and stage lighting (10th ed.). Cengage Learning.
Pask, S. (2011). The Book of Mormon scenic design. Retrieved from TonyAwards.com.
Shelton, S. (2014). Technical theater for nontechnical people (3rd ed.). Allworth Press.
Stern, L., & Travis, D. (2012). Stage management (10th ed.). Focal Press.
Svoboda, J. (1993). The secret of theatrical space. Applause Theatre & Cinema Books.
Zinn, D. (2024). Stereophonic scenic design. Retrieved from Playbill.com.