Old India in the New West.

Modern civilization begins in 1776 with the publication of Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations. Its formative period may be taken to have closed with 1815, when the fall of the Napoleonic empire, on the one hand, and the almost assured success of the "industrial revolution" on the other were laying the foundations of a new inter-political system and a new socio-economic order throughout the world. Ever since the year 1 of this new culture India has been in intimate touch with the West; for by the Regulating Act of 1772, the year of the partition of Poland, England took charge of the administration of the eastern provinces of the present British India.

It goes without saying that the achievements of the Occidental world in industry, science, philosophy and the fine arts during the nineteenth century have profoundly influenced the thoughts and activities of the people of India, as of other regions in Asia. But what is most likely to be missed by the student of culture-history is the fact that even the ancient and medieval civilization of the Hindus has been one of the feeders of this modern civilization itself; i.e., that the cultural movements in Europe and America since 1776 have been affected to an appreciable extent by the achievements of free India down to that period.

1. Naval Architecture.

In the days of the sailing ships and oaken vessels¹ the naval engineering of the Hindus was efficient and advanced enough to be drawn upon with confidence for European shipping. At Madapollum, for example, on the Madras Coast, many English merchants used to have their vessels yearly built. The Hindu ship-architects could ingeniously perform all sorts of iron work, e.g., spikes, bolts, anchors, etc. "Very expert master-builders there are several here," says the English traveler, Thomas Bowrey in his Geographical Account of Countries Round the Bay of Bengal (1669-1675); "they build very well, and launch with as much discretion as I have seen in any part of the world. They have an excellent way of making shrouds, stays, or any other riggings for ships."²

Writing even so late as 1789, on the eve of the industrial revolution in Europe, Solvyns, the French traveler, could still recommend, in his Les Hindous, the Hindu method of uniting the planks as "not unworthy of the imitation of Europeans." He says: "In ancient times the Hindus excelled in the art of constructing vessels, and the present Hindus can in this respect still offer models to Europe."³

In the building of a boat the Hindus began by choosing a large piece of timber which they bent as they pleased. To the two ends of this they attached another piece thicker than it, and covered this simple frame with planks; "but they have a particular manner of joining these planks to each other, by flat cramps with two points which enter the boards to be joined, and use common nails only to join the planks to the knee. For the sides of the boat they have pieces of wood which outpass the planks. This method is as solid as it is simple."⁴

Some of the Hindu methods were actually assimilated by the Europeans. Thus, as the French writer observes: "The English, attentive to everything which relates to naval architecture, have borrowed from the Hindus many improvements which they have adopted with success to their own shipping."⁵ Further, the Portuguese "imitated" the pointed prow in their India-ships. This was a characteristic feature of the grab, a Hindu ship with three masts.⁶

The industrial and material culture of Old India was thus sufficiently vital to influence contemporary Europe at the threshold of the nineteenth century civilization. The tradition is reported also by old American sea-captains that fishing boats like the sloop, yawl, cutter etc. so common in the United States⁷ waters were modelled in the "colonial period" on Hindu patterns.

2. The So-Called Bell-Lancasterian Pedagogics.

During the formative period of the modern educational systems in Europe and America, the pedagogy of the Hindus, especially on its elementary side, has played an important part.

It is well known that primary education was grossly neglected in America during the first half-century of her independence. In England even so late as 1843, 32 per cent of the men and 49 per cent of the women had to sign their names on the marriage register with a cross. Illiteracy was the rule in France also at the time of the Revolution, as Arthur Young observed. Guizot's educational commission (1833) found that "the ignorance was general" and that "all the teachers did not know how to write."⁸

In an age of paucity of "public schools" private educational efforts naturally elicited the people's admiration. And none drew more sympathy and support than Andrew Bell's (1753-1823) "mutual-tuition" or "pupil-teacher" or "monitorial" system of school management. His first school was founded in England in 1798, but in less than a dozen years 1000 schools were opened to teach 200,000 children.⁹ This "mutual instruction" was a craze in France also under the Restoration.¹⁰ The same system known in America after Lancaster (1778-1838), the English rival of Dr. Bell in theology was in vogue in the New England States during the first quarter of the nineteenth century.¹¹ It could become so universal simply because of its cheapness as it did not involve the appointment of teachers. And as to its educational value, Bell was so enthusiastic as to declare, after visiting Pestalozzi's School at Yverdun in 1815, that in another twelve years mutual instruction would be adopted by the whole world and Pestalozzi's method would be forgotten.¹²

What, now, is the origin of this much-applauded mutual-instruction or monitorial system, the so-called Bell-Lancasterian "discovery" in Pedagogy? Historians of education are familiar with the fact that the plan of making one boy teach others has been indigenous to India for centuries.¹³ Bell, himself, in his Mutual Tuition (Pt. I, ch. I, V) describes how in Madras he came into contact with a school conducted by a single master or superintendent through the medium of the scholars themselves. And, in fact, in England the monitorial system or the method of making every boy at once a master and a scholar is known as the "Madras system."

England's debt to India in pedagogics has been fitly acknowledged in the tablet in Westminster Abbey, which describes Andrew Bell as "the eminent founder of the Madras System of Education, which has been adopted within the British empire, as the national system of education for the children of the poor."¹⁴

3. Shakuntalâ and the Romantic Movement.

The romantic movement in Germany and England, with its after-math, the English pre-Raphaelite movement, has been one of the greatest forces in Europe's modern letters and art. The poetry of Old India has furnished an impetus to this current also of nineteenth century thought.¹⁵

The Shakuntalâ of Kalidas, the Hindu dramatist of the fifth century A.C., was Englished by Jones in 1789. Forster's German rendering (1791) of it from the English version at once drew the notice of Herder (1744-1803), the great champion of comparative methodology and Weltliteratur. And Herder introduced it to Goethe, on whom the effect was as tremendous as that of the discovery of America on geographers and of Neptune on students of astronomy. Goethe's ecstasy expressed itself in the ultra-enthusiastic lines:

"Wilt thou the blossoms of the spring, the fruits of late autumn,
Wilt thou what charms and enraptures,
Wilt thou what satisfies and nourishes,
Wilt thou in one name conceive heaven and earth,
I name, Shakuntala, thee, and in that is everything said."

These are the words of a man who in 1771 had dramatized the narrative of Götz, a medieval bandit. The sentiment in favor of the Rousseauesque "state of nature," the love of "ancient reliques," the Bolshevist revolt against the status quo of art, the subversion of classic restraint, the lyric abandon to the promptings of the imagination, the awakening of the sense of wonder, and the craving of the soul for the unknown, the mystery—a great deal of all that was later to be associated with Scott, Shelley, Schiller, and Lamartine had been anticipated and focused in that drama of "Storm and Stress." It is not strange, therefore, that the great "futurist" of the eighteenth century, the father of modernism in European literature, should have welcomed the Hindu Shakespeare as warmly as he did the Elizabethan. For in Goethe's eyes wistfully looking for more light, more spontaneity, more freedom, both shed the "light that never was on sea or land," the one as the star of the. Middle Ages, the other as the sun of a hitherto unknown world.

Shakuntalâ left an indelible impression upon the literary activity of this pioneer of romanticism. It is the story of a woman with child deserted by her lover. The Gretchen-episode in the tragedy of Faust may thus have been inspired by the dramatist of India. At any rate, German critics have pointed out that the conversation between the poet, the manager and the Merry Andrew in the prelude to Faust is modelled upon that in Kâlidâsa's play, in which the manager and one of the actresses talk as to the kind of performance they are to give. Shakuntalâ occupied a great place in the dramatic and lyrical imagination of Schiller also, in whose Thalia Germans are familiar with his Indian reminiscences. It is well known, besides, how the schöne Weiblichkeit which he failed to discover in the Greek classics he found at last in the Hindu drama.

The Shakuntalâ furore has lasted till almost today. One of the noblest "overtures" in European music is the "Shakuntalâ overture" of the Hungarian composer Goldmark (1830-1915).

4. The Gitâ in Europe and America.

Another force that Old India has contributed to the life and thought of the modern world is the profound optimism of the Gîtâ (ca. B.C. 600-200?), a section of the Mahâbhârata (the Great Epic). The Gîtâ was translated into English in 1785. It was popularized in Germany by Herder and Humboldt. Since then its Leitmotif has been absorbed by the sponge-like minds of the greatest thinkers of Europe and America. It may be said to be held in solution in almost every great "poetical philosophy" or "philosophical poetry" of our times down to Bergsonian "intuition."

In the first place, the Gîtâ is the philosophy of duty and Nishkâma Karma (work for its own sake), of the "categorical imperative." In the second place, it tries to solve the mystery of death, which is but an aspect of the larger and more comprehensive problem of the evil. The solution is reached in the conception of the immortality of the soul, the infinite goodness of God, the nothingness of death and the virtual denial of the existence of evil. Such postulates are of the deepest significance as much to the lover who seeks an "eternal" union' of hearts, as to the warrior who must bid adieu to the body in order to save the soul. This Bible of Old India has therefore influenced not only the Imitation of Christ by Thomas à Kempis but also Tennyson's In Memoriam and Browning's La Saisiaz, both inspired by the death of friends.

The "obstinate questionings" in Browning's poetry are the same as those of Arjuna in the Gîtâ, viz.:

"Does the soul survive the body?
Is there God's self—no or yes?"

The answer in both La Saisiaz and the Gîtâ is in the emphatic affirmative. It is a message of hope to suffering humanity. Men and women in distress can brace their hearts up if they are assured that somehow through God's mysterious dispensation the good persists in and through the evils that are apparent. This Hindu optimism is voiced also by Walt Whitman, the voracious student of world-thought, in the following words:

"Roaming in thought over the universe
I saw the little that is Good steadily hastening towards immortality;
And the vast all that is called Evil
I saw hastening to merge itself and become lost and dead."

Tennyson had made only a tentative and halting statement to the same effect:

"Oh, yet we trust that somehow good
Will be the final goal of ill."

But the paean of the Upanishadic Ândanda (or bliss) and Amrita (or immortality) rises clearly forth in Browning, thus,—

"Why rushed the discord in, but that harmony should be prized?"

Further,

"The evil is null, is nought; is silence, implying sound;
On the earth the broken arcs; in the heaven, a perfect round."

The syllogism of the Gîtâ leads, indeed, on such-like arguments, to the more drastic conclusion:

"Up then! and conquer! in thy might arise!
Fear not to slay the soul, for the soul never dies."

Even militarism and man-killing are thus not evils in Hindu optimism. No wonder that the Gîtâ should have been a source of inspiration to the most diverse minds seeking comfort and strength. It could not fail to be a trumpet to the prophets of Duty, and such prophets were Carlyle, the sage of Chelsea, and Mazzini; the political mystic of the Italian regeneration.

With the memorable words, "Close thy Byron, Open thy Goethe", Carlyle sent forth his Sartor Resartus to the English people, as the manifesto of an all-round Germanism. This German Kultur was the idealism of Kant, Lessing, Fichte, Schelling and Hegel, the nearest European ally of Hindu monism. It opened the Anglo-Saxon mind to the sense of the infinite, of the majesty of the spiritual self, and electrified the soul to the recognition of the "duties that lie nearest thee." The gospel that taught people to "make thy numerator zero in order that the quotient may be infinite" converted the Bostonians of the trans-Atlantic world from Lockites into metaphysicians. This "new thought" of the day was worshipped by Parker and Emerson around the Dial. The New England Transcendentalists thus became kinsmen of the Hindus.

5. Manu as the Inspirer of Nietzsche.

Nietzsche's Dionysian cult is one of the latest great forces in world-culture. The web of recent Eur-American life is being supremely invigorated by the warp of the Nietzschean Will to Power. It is interesting to observe that almost the whole of this new cult is reared on Hindu humanism and energism. Old India has contributed its hoary Manu as the master-builder in order to boss the super-men who are to architecture the Occident of the twentieth century.

Nietzsche, like the "futurists" of all ages, believes that the world is in need of a thorough-going "transvaluation of values." How is that to be effected? The means to the re-humanizing of humanity have been devised, says he, by the Hindus. "Close thy Bible, open thy Code of Manu" is his prescription. And why? Because Manu is the propounder of an "affirmative" religion—the religion of the, "deification of power," whereas Christianity is the creed of the slave, the pariah, the chandâla.¹⁶ Says Nietzsche:

"One breathes more freely, after stepping out of the Christian atmosphere of hospitals and poisons into this more salobrious, loftier and more spacious world. What a wretched thing the New Testament is beside Manu, what an evil odour hangs around it!"¹⁷

In Nietzsche's estimation Manu is also a better because more frank teacher of political science than the philosophers, insincere as they are, of the Western world. Thus, "Manu's words again are simple and dignified; Virtue could hardly rely on her own strength alone. Really it is only the fear of punishment that keeps men in their limits and leaves every one in peaceful possession of his own."¹⁸

In international politics Hindu theory since the days of Kautilya (fourth century B.C.), the Bismarck of the first Hindu empire, has been candidly Machiavellian. Nietzsche finds greater truth in the mercilessly correct view of inter-statal relations given by the Hindus than in the hypocritical statements of Occidental statesmen whose actions belie their words." In Nietzsche's language,

"Rather what Manu says is probably truer: we must conceive of all the states on our own frontier, and their allies, as being hostile, and for the same reason, we must consider all of their neighbors as being friendly to us."¹⁹

This is the celebrated doctrine of Mandala (circle of states) fully described in Kautilya's Artha-shâstra and Kâmandaka's Nîti, both treatises on politics.

The fundamental reason for Nietzsche's sympathy with, and advocacy of, Hindu culture is to be found in the fact that the Hindus were keenly alive to the animality in human life and interests, and that their Weltanschauung embodied the joy of living in its entirety. As Nietzsche observes, Manu has "organized the highest possible means of making life flourish." Further,

"The fact that, in Christianity, 'holy' ends are entirely absent, constitutes my objection to the means it employs . . . . My feelings are quite the reverse when I read the Lawbook of Manu, . . . an incomparably intellectual and superior work . . . . It is replete with noble values, it is filled with a feeling of perfection, with a saying of yea to life, and a triumphant sense of well-being in regard to itself and to life, the sun shines upon the whole book. All those things which Christianity smothers with its bottomless vulgarity, procreation, woman, marriage, are here treated with earnestness, with reverence, with love and confidence."²⁰

It is this secular outlook, this positive standpoint, this humanism that, according to Nietzsche, has given a sanctity to life in Hindu thought. "I know of no book," says he, "in which so many delicate and kindly things are said to woman, as in the Lawbook of Manu; these old graybeards and saints have a manner of being gallant to women which perhaps cannot be surpassed."** 'The breath of a woman', says Manu, on one occasion, 'the breast of a maiden, the prayer of a child, and the smoke of the sacrifice are always pure.' Elsewhere he says; 'There is nothing purer than the light of the sun, the shadow cast by the cow, air, water, fire, and the breath of a maiden.'²¹

6. India in the Universities and Movies.

During the romantic period while Shelley was singing of "Champak odours" Schiller was trying to adapt Shakuntalâ to the German stage and Heine was discovering the "schönsten Ort" on the banks of the Ganges. The latter's "Die Lotosblume ängstigt" has subsequently been set to music by Schumann.

French romanticism was perhaps fed more on Mohammedan than on Hindu sources, e.g. the Orientales of Victor Hugo (1829) and of Lamartine (1834). Le Conte de Lisle (1820-94) is known to have travelled "in the Indies". Victor Cousin (1792-1862) had not, however, failed, eclectic as he was, to make use of the Hindu contributions brought to light in his days. In his Histoire de la philosophie as in Janet's Histoire de la science politique the Western will find the Hegelian interpretation of the Hindu "spirit". Besides, the misery of the "untouchable classes" in Indian population had evoked a powerful French tragedy, Le Paria (1821) by Delavigne, which at "Comédie Française"²² Theatre served to give a fillip to the spirit of social equality that had been fostered by the "ideas of 1789".

Sanskrit poetry has been quite lucky in its European translators. Griffith's exquisite English verse has popularized the Râmâyana, the Raghuvamsha and other epics and lyrics. In French the translations by Bergaigne, Victor Henry, Herold and others are well known. The Indische Liebeslyrik by Rückert (1788-1866), a poet and scholar, master as he was of diction, has enriched German poetry²³ with love songs from Kâlidâs, Bhâravi, Bhartrihari and Jayadeva.

During the nineteenth century, especially in its latter half and since, the universities of Eur-America have almost vied with one another in introducing Indic subjects, indianisme, or indology in their curricula. The result is well known to savants who are interested in the publications of the Royal Asiatic Society through all its Branches, the Société Asiatique, the Deutsche Morgenländische Gesellschaft, the American Oriental Society, and so forth. The investigations of these learned societies may be said to be chiefly, if not exclusively, oriented to theologico-metaphysical scholarship, to archaeology, and to philology, especially to the grammar of the "dead" languages. The kind of work which has been done in this direction can be easily sampled out from Sylvain Lévi's account of French indology (with bibliography) in a chapter of La Science Française (Vol. II, 1915) and in C. Brockelman's Die morgenländischen Studien in Deutschland in the Zeitschrift der D. M. G. (1922).

Modern India has remained a taboo in these learned societies until almost to-day. But as the interest in the living Indian languages is already evident in the scholarly work of Grierson in England and Jules Bloch (La Formation de la langue marathie, 1914) in France it is not perhaps to be doubted that contemporary India is likely soon to be attacked by orientalists,—from the philological angle at any rate. The School of Oriental Studies in London may be said to have set the example (1912).

But while the "upper ten thousands" in the field of science have neglected the present-day life and institutions of India, consuls, diplomats, governors, missionaries, merchants and travellers have tried to furnish Anglo-American, French and German literature with reports of what is going on in the South-Asian dependency.²⁴ Contemporary Eur-American fiction and drama are therefore in a position to exploit Indian themes for modern art. The Western "masses" derive their knowledge about India and the East from these sources,—and more especially perhaps from the cinemas and moving picture theatres which either seek to dramatize the extant story-literature or otherwise attempt to objectify the impressions of their own agents who are deputed to the spot in order to collect first-hand information.

The India that has thus passed current in the lay mind of Eur-America can be visualized in one of the masterpieces of contemporary German drama, the Spiegel-Mensch (Mirror-Man) of Werfel (1920), which has been described as "a second Faust" in La Nouvelle Revue Française of Paris. All the important incidents in this play take place in the East which is exhibited with its snakes and magic; its alleged pessimism and superstition.

The Indian references in Sudermann likewise are anything but flattering. The Hindu hermits are brought in in his "Es lebe das Leben". In his "Die Ehre" the dramatist shows not only the tropics with their palms, oranges, parrots and monkeys, the Sumatra tobaccos and spices, the regions of Central Asia, the Tibetan grandee, and the custom prevailing in Tibet of entertaining the guest with one's wife, but also India with its hot climate, its water-pipes, shawls, light blue sapphires, and its golden image of Ganesha, the god of success, riding a rat.

Such specimens of indianisme abound in the Eur-American letters of the present-day. These are in fact acquiring a wide notoriety through the interest that has been recently popularized in mysticism and "Hindu philosophy" or the so-called Hindu "point of view". The success of Vivekananda's Vedânta Societies in the United States, the inroads of theosophy upon contemporary "new thoughters", and last but not least, the Tagore-cult which the Nobel-prize has served to establish for mankind since 1912,— all these have been tending to divert Eur-America's attention from the India of flesh and blood, the India of human interests and ambitions to the India of phantasy and romance. But fortunately during the same period the revolutionism militant of Young India has succeeded in creating a reaction in the Occidental estimate of the Indian spirit.

One must not ignore the important part that the India-sections of the museums in Great Britain or the Fine Arts Museums of New York, Boston, Cleveland and other American cities, the Musée Guimet of Paris, the Museum für Völkerkunde in Berlin, or the Tretiatov Gallery in Moscow have played in contributing not only to the studies in comparative art-history and art-technique but also to the enrichment of modern Western plastic arts by furnishing hints and suggestions. In Vincent Van Gogh, the Dutch master's Letters of a Post-Impressionist the student of painting is familiar with the motifs à la japonaise which were being introduced in Europe about the middle of the last century. India's part in the technique of post-impressionist art will be apparent to observers of the new "artistic" anatomies exhibited by the "moderns" since Cêzanne.²⁵

7. Sanskritic Culture and the "Comparative" Sciences.

The greatest differentium between the modern civilization and all that the world witnessed between the Chaldaean ages and the eve of the industrial revolution is the phenomenal expansion of the human mind. This has brought in its train a catholicity of interests and toleration of divergent views. In this emancipation of the intellect from the thraldom of parochial and racial outlook, Old India's contribution has probably been the most helpful and significant. The reason is not far to seek. The "discovery of Sanskrit" by the European scholars of the eighteenth century opened the portals to the series of sciences called "comparative." And it is this that has rendered possible the recognition, though not complete yet, of the fundamental uniformity in the reactions of man to the stimuli of the universe.

The first fruit of the discovery was "comparative philology." Jones founded the Asiatic Society of Bengal at Calcutta in 1784, and in 1786 hit upon the hypothesis of a common source of Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, Gothic, Celtic and Persian. The linguistic survey was pursued more systematically by the poet Schlegel, who, in his Die Weisheit der Indier (1808, The Language and Wisdom of the Indians) announced that the languages of India, Persia, Greece, Italy, Germany, and Slavonia were the daughters of the same mother and heirs of the same wealth of words and flections. Comparative philology was scientifically established by Bopp's Das Conjugations-system (1816) and Comparative Grammar (completed in parts between 1833 and 1852).

Once the unity of the Indo-Aryan or Indo-Germanic languages was realized, the road was opened to the interpretation of ideas, ideals, rituals, customs, superstitions, folk-lore, etc., on-a more or less universal basis. This has ushered in the sciences of comparative mythology and comparative religion, for which Max Müller's Sacred Books of the East series is chiefly responsible. The investigation has not stopped at this point. Secular, economic, political, and juristic institutions and theories have been attacked by the methodology of comparative science, and the result has been works like Gibelin's Etudes sur le droit civil des Hindous (1846), Maine's Village Communities (1871), Ancient Law, and Early History of Institutions (1876) and Gomme's Primitive Folkroots (1886) and Folklore as an Historical Science (1908). More "intensive" studies have indeed compelled a modification²⁶ of the conclusions of the pioneers; but, on the whole, in the field of social science Sanskritic culture has been demanding a gradually enlarging space.

The trend of latter-day scholarship is to detect, through the ages of history, the close parallelism and pragmatic identity between

Hindustan and Europe not only in theology and god-lore, but in rationalism, positive science, civic life, legal sense, democratic ideals, militarism, morals, manners, and what not. The evidences from the Hindu angle are being supplemented in recent years by the findings of Egyptology, Assyriology, and Sinology, i.e., the sciences dealing with extra-Aryan culture-zones. The establishment of a comparative psychology of the races, past and present, Oriental and Occidental, is thus being looked for as the greatest work of anthropological researches in the twentieth century. The data are already varied and extensive enough to employ the energies of a "new Montesquieu" such as Myres expects in his Influence of Anthropology upon the course of Political Science (1916).²⁷

Notes

1. See the reproduction of ships (mediaeval European) in Histoire de la marine française by Bourel de la Roncière: W. C. Albott's Expansion of Europe.↩
2.  Page 72, etc.↩
3. Vol. III, sixth number, ed. 1811. Ed. 1789, cited by Mookerji in his History of Indian Shipping, p. 250.↩
4. Solvyns, Vol. III, sixth number, ed. 1811.↩
5. Mookerji, p. 251.↩
6. Solvyns, Vol. III, fourth number, ed. 1811.↩
7. The colonial "bungalow'' style of American buildings has its prototype in the "bangla" architecture of the cottages of Bengal, such for instance as are mentioned in the Padma Purâna. And India has taught not only the printing of the famous calico cloths for which the city of Calicut was noted but the "gingam" so popular in American summer clothing also derives its very name from the Indian district in Ganjam.↩
8. Compayrê, History of Pedagogy.↩
9. Painter's History of Education, p. 305.↩
10.  Compayrê, p. 515.↩
11. Parker, History of Modern Elementary Education, pp. 102, 241, 264 etc.↩
12. Quick's Educational Reformers, p. 352.↩
13.  Compayrê, 6, 514; Painter, p. 305; Meiklejohn, An Old Educational Reformer, Dr. Andrew Bell, pp. 25-26.↩
14. Narendra Law's Promotion of Learning in India by Early European Settlers, p. 49, 61.↩
15. See the chapters on "Die Gebrüder Schlegel", "Novalis" etc. in R. Huch's Blütezeit der Romantik (Leipzig, 1920). Passages from Herder, Goethe, Schiller and others are reproduced in P. T. Hoffmann's Der Indische und der Deutsche Geist (Tübingen, 1915). The author's interpretations, however, are thoroughly unreliable as being too chauvinistic.↩
16. The Will to Power, Vol. I, Book II, p. 126.↩
17. The Twilight of Idols, p. 46.↩
18. The Will, Vol. II, Book IV, p. 184.↩
19. The Will, Vol. II, Book IV, p. 183.↩
20. The Antichrist, p. 214-215.↩
21. The Antichrist, p. 215.↩
22. A. F. Hérold: L'Inde a la Comédie Française et à la Comédie Italienne en 1770 (Paris 1911).↩
23. A. F. Remy: Influence of India and Persia on the Poetry of Germany, Columbia University Studies, New York.↩
24. See the present author's Die soziale Philosophic Jung-Indiens in the Deutsche Rundschau (Berlin, April 1922) for the criticism on "colonialism" and idealistic (as well as one-sided) interpretations.↩
25. B. K. Sarkar: Hindu Art: Its Humanism and Modernism, 1920.↩
26. Vide Bibliography D. in the present author's Political Institutions and Theories of the Hindus.↩
27. Cf. Lowie's Primitive Society (New York 1920) and note the changes which have become inevitable in social science since Morgan's Ancient Society was published in 1877.↩