VI. Psychological Tests of Females

The Arena (July 1901) Vol. XXVI: pp. 56-66.

In the last preceding article, the tests of the senses were given. This one will include all those that are dependent upon the senses but do not relate solely to them. These include memory, association of ideas, coordination, fatigue, and quality tests, together with some suggestions from the work with the kymograph. Satisfactory methods have been devised, so that this year's measurements of the students include those of attention, imagination, reason, observation, and language. These additions make a more complete series and secure broader results.

The test for memory is made in the following way: There are six series of numerals, each containing ten figures. The first series of ten consists of four figures, as 3,851; the second of five, as 74,281; the third of six, and so on. Each series increases in length by one over the preceding, the last series containing nine numbers. Beginning with the first series, the numbers are read distinctly and the subject is required to write them as she has heard them. She cannot write until each number is finished, as 7,641. If she cannot write, she repeats them to the experimenter, who writes her answer. The series are given in order of increasing difficulty until the subject fails or makes three kinds of errors: omits, transposes, and substitutes a figure. The series in which these occur is the one that represents her capacity. In order to prevent any efficiency that comes through the use of numbers, as with bookkeepers, this experiment is repeated with letters, as x m p f, and so forth. There is no change from the method used with numbers, only all vowels are omitted; while among the figures only zero is not used. Results show that the negroes rarely pass series 3—containing six figures. Beyond this they become confused, impatient, and make many errors. For letters, the series is the same, though the percentage is less. Thus, in numbers, over fifty per cent. can produce six figures, less than twenty-five per cent. seven numbers, and less than twenty per cent. eight figures. In letters a larger number can reproduce six figures, but few go beyond this. Negro criminals are inferior to white students, but compare favorably with white criminals, even though the latter are more familiar with both letters and figures. Difficulty in the formation of figures lessens the average for the criminals, for in their efforts to write the letters they often forget what has been read. The negroes do not give up as easily as the white criminals, and are less impatient. The latter are more sensitive to failure, and, if they are not doing well, much tact and encouragement are needed to secure their best records. The students' average is, for numerals, eight; for letters, seven. Among the whites the penitentiary inmates are slightly above the negroes' average, and the workhouse inmates slightly below. This is not an all-sufficient test, but indicates the possibilities of such work in determining memory, concentration, attention, comprehension, and other facts.

Card assortments and precision tests are given to determine discrimination and resulting coordination. The subject is required to assort thirty-two cards into four boxes of equal sizes. Upon these cards are pasted small round disks, eight each of blue, red, yellow, and green. She is required to throw the blue into one box, the red into another, and so forth. She does this as rapidly as possible, and the time required and number of errors are carefully noted. First she must discriminate between the colors, and then the hand must execute her judgment. When this is done, she is given thirty-two cards similar to the others, but upon these are drawn eight each of squares, circles, triangles, and pentagons. She is then required to distribute these in the proper boxes, by the same process as the colors.

The precision test is given for the purpose of determining the coordination of the eye and hand. A sheet of paper, upon which is printed a target, is hung upon the wall. The subject is seated in front of this, and with a continuous free-arm swing from the shoulder is required to strike the center as nearly as she can. A pencil is held in the hand, and every time it strikes, it leaves its record in the form of a dot. The striking is done upon regular time, so that all subjects work at the same rate. Among the negroes, 45 per cent, made dots outside the inner circle, which was ³⁄₄ of an inch in diameter. Both students and white criminals were more accurate than the negroes, although the individual blanks show that the white criminals are more nervous. Thus there were fewer dots outside the inner circle, but they were further from the center. To secure the contrast, a few dots were made with the subject's eyes closed. Some of these were without the outer circle of the target, which was seven inches in diameter, and none of them were within the inner circle. Both of these tests show that the criminals average below the normal; but that they can do as well and as poorly individually is indicated by the range.

The next test is perhaps the most interesting and certainly the most suggestive. This is called association of ideas. A word is given the subject and she is requested to write down whatever she thinks. Instead of writing the whole idea, she puts down one word for each idea, and her train of thought is then represented by a column of words, as "dog, cat, lawn, dark, rain, party, disagreeable," meaning that a dog suggested chasing a cat across the lawn; that cats howl at night, when it is dark; it rains when it is dark, and it is disagreeable going to a party in the rain. Here is a definite train of thought represented in a test of words. This test was the most difficult for the criminals to grasp, for they would put in such words as "of" and "the," or write sentences.

Three series of associations were given, the first for the purpose of determining the strength of the various sense organs in memory. Thus the subject closed her eyes and at a given signal a color was shown her. She wrote all the thought which followed that, starting with the idea of the color. One minute is allowed for each word, and the subject can think of anything she chooses, whether connected with the word or idea given or not. For hearing, a whistle is blown, and she records her thought, starting with this idea; for taste, she is given a drop of quinine solution; for smell, camphor or perfume; for touch, a sharp pin prick. Starting with the idea of each of the sensations, the object is to see how long each persists. Each series of associations is carefully analyzed with the subject's aid, so that each idea is as clearly defined as possible. The results show that the visual persists the longest, the auditory second, tactual third, and gustatory and olfactory about the same. Thus, where a color was shown all the associations were of the eye, and rarely involved the others, as where all the other colors were named or where pictures were recalled of persons, places, or things.

The second series was given for the purpose of determining the rate and route of association and for the content of the mind. The rate of association shows the capacity for associative thought under a given stimulus in a given time. For this series the words marriage, religion, habit, value, and mind were used, and work and punishment were added, where the subject failed to associate with these. The meaning of the words must be within the grasp of the subject or no thought is aroused. The rate shows that the students' average is about ten associations per minute, the white criminals 5.2 and the negroes about 7.6 associations. One reason why the white criminals' rate is so low is because of their difficulty in writing. Sometimes it was so slow and labored that only a few associations could be given. If the associations had been written by the experimenter as with the negroes, the two would not have been radically divergent in rate.

Again, among the white criminals the workhouse class are more degenerate, physically, from excessive bad habits than are the penitentiary classes; and this lowers the rate. Among the negroes there are not the extreme and varied excesses found among the whites. On the whole, they are in better physical condition. Another reason why the negroes' rate is high is because their associations are elementary. The better educated persons show more complex associations, as will be seen later.

One other reason for the difference in rate is that the deficient mental training of the criminals prevents concentration, and this is essential in association work. In subjects of low mental caliber and in feeble-minded persons the associations were broken, sometimes no link being found with preceding or succeeding words. The criminals, more than the students, suppress their thought, often unconsciously, for they are constantly on the defensive and suppress ideas that are immoral or detrimental to themselves. This was revealed in the analysis of the ideas.

The routes of the association are three. All the ideas may go back to the original word, as under habits, where all kinds are named. Thus the idea of "habit" is carried to the end; this is called reverting association. The second is where the original idea is completely lost, as in the following: color—"blue, pretty, dress, baby, my own, wish to see." Here the idea of blue is lost entirely. This is progressive association, and is most common to the educated classes, as whole scenes are often presented. The third is a mixture of the two. Wherever criminals of good education have been tested, the tendency has been toward progressive and mixed associations.

The third and perhaps most important datum is the nature of the thought—mental and moral. On the mental side the following facts are revealed: the criminals' associations were almost invariably within their own experience or feeling. Among students and educated criminals there were associations of general knowledge, as books read, or of general facts. The range of ideas with the criminals was necessarily smaller, narrowing as the intelligence and education decreased. This is shown through the repetitions and elementary associations and through the breaks in the continuity of thought. This is also shown by the limited number of associations which they gave upon abstract words, such as value and mind. The spelling and chirography in the cases where they could write, and the difficulty with which they made their meaning clear in the analysis, further revealed this. The conversations developed by this analysis, in which they were asked to tell their thoughts, gave much light upon the mental scope. This mental scope is more limited in the negro than in the white criminal.

The moral tone of the subject's thought is revealed chiefly through the associations upon marriage, religion, habits, and value. As most of the students were not married, the first word brought forth theoretical associations, as their ideas about it. The criminals showed clearly the nature of the domestic life. A few had been happy, but the words "fighting," "divorce," "unhappy," and "not marry again," occur very frequently. Religion secured some good results. Among the students there was often included the ethical side of religion, while the criminals confined their thought to the form. This was especially true of the white criminals. The following is an illustration: Students—"prayer, heaven, peace, contentment, happiness;" "beautiful, good, safe, nun." Criminals—"sacrament, singing, choir, organ;" "heaven, home, dress, holiday, good time." Among the negroes the expression is more emotional, as "shouting, preaching, get religion, hallelujah." This favors the statement that criminals are often religious but not moral. Sometimes they would cry while giving their association, and then would pray for strength to "down" an enemy when they "got out." The associations show that their religion is a matter of the soul, and has but little application in improved daily living.

Under habits, the criminals almost always included the bad ones, and there were often whole lists made up of such words as lying, stealing, cheating, killing, snuff, whisky, etc. It was only occasionally that good habits were included, or formed a large part of the association. Value showed more of an economic condition. Some of the things named as valuable, by the criminal, other classes on a higher plane would not notice. They included groceries, articles of dress, furniture, small money, etc. Value in the abstract they did not give at all, as cost, exchange, etc. Occasionally the value of friends, home, and similar things would be included; but most of the things were material and showed a very limited and simple economic sphere. Wherever well-educated criminals were secured—and these were very few, being only three among the whites and one among the negroes—the associations showed clearly the educational and cultural forces mixed with the degraded and immoral.

The third series consisted of constrained association. All of the preceding have been free. Under the present series the subject is allowed to think upon only the subjects given. These were: "Name the kinds of birds you know," and "Give the causes of fire." The time limit and process were the same. For the students the rate is lower than for criminals, when compared with the rate of free associations. The criminals are imitative and think faster on a given subject. They seemed confused by the wide range of free association. Constrained association, by reason of the discrimination required, averaged less than the free. "Causes of fire" was more difficult than naming birds, and in all classes the rate is less in the latter test.

This brief outline of an elaborate test shows clearly the nature and value of the material that may be obtained firsthand from the individual's own thought process, and it throws light upon the actual mental and moral status. This test can be extended to cover many subjects and has been used in this investigation in a suggestive and by no means exhaustive way.

Fatigue tests are, perhaps, familiar to many, by reason of their use in public-school measurements. The method used in these tests is very simple. An ordinary pair of scales, used for weighing small packages, is suspended from a standard. The subject places her first finger upon the hook, the hand and arm resting upon the table. At a given signal she pulls as hard as she can, and then holds the hook as steadily as possible at that point for half a minute. The rate of decrease from the maximum pull shows the rate of fatigue. The negroes' average shows the maximum pull to be 7.6 pounds, and the minimum 5.2 pounds, the difference being the rate of fatigue, which is small. The students' rate of fatigue is less than this, and the white criminals' slightly greater. There is one peculiarity of the criminals, and noticeably among the whites—that they exhausted their energy with a sharp pull, instead of pulling the scales regularly and easily. When the scales are sent up with a sudden jerk they cannot be held at that point as steadily. Untrained, uneducated persons perform much of their labor and enter into their recreations by these bursts of energy, instead of by constant, steady work.

A so-called quality test was given the negroes, similar to that in the Northern investigations; but it was a failure. This failure was the most significant result possible. The following words were chosen: principle, honor, truth, justice, right, ambition, courage, love, pride, purity, nobility, sympathy, friendship, virtue, sincerity, and patience. From this list they were asked to select five which they wished to possess for themselves or their friends. It was found that some of the words held no meaning for them, and they could not comprehend the meaning under the most patient explanation. Love, friendship, truth, sympathy, and sincerity they had some conception of; for purity, only the religious concept could be seen, not the personal one; principle and honor were recognized in only a few instances; justice had no meaning, except in relation to their crime and punishment, and they could only dimly apply it in their relations to one another. There were exceptions, but the understanding was so deficient that the results can only be used to show this. Among the white criminals one fact is significant—the extent to which the softer qualities, as love, friendship, purity, etc., are ruled out. Friendship, sympathy, and sincerity are at the bottom of the list; and in lives so ruled by competition, harshness, and deception this result is inevitable.

There were two tests made with the kymograph. This is an instrument having a base that contains a clock-work. To an upright arm is adjusted a brass drum, which is revolved by the clock-work. Upon this drum is fastened a strip of smoked paper. As the drum revolves slowly the subject is required to hold a quill or fine brush, as steadily as possible, at arms' length. As the drum revolves a line is drawn which shows the steadiness of the subject. In most of the cases this line showed no neurotic conditions, but there were a few showing this condition. Wherever the subject was frightened she was given other trials, so that as nearly as possible this element was eliminated. From this and other observations, the tendency seems clear that criminal negro women are not neurotics to the extent which the white criminal women are.

The second test was that of the respiration. A small hollow drum, filled with rubber ends to which are fastened threads, is tied about the chest. To this is attached a rubber tube, which is fastened to a tambour upon a standard. The pointer of the tambour rests against the smoked paper, and is so arranged that when the subject breathes this pointer is moved up and down. As the drum does not remain stationary, the line has a wave-like form. So long as the spaces and height of the lines remain the same the breathing is normal. Now, the object is to determine the amount of emotional reaction to a given stimulus. A sheet of paper will hold from eight to ten of these curved lines. The subject is placed with her back to the instrument, and during the first time around is told to think of nothing. This is impossible, and is only designed to keep out disturbing elements, for the changes in thought change the breathing curve. During the second time around, a block is suddenly dropped back of the subject. This acts as a surprise, and the result is shown in the sharp rise in the curve and in its unsteadiness until the subject recovers her composure. The second stimulus is that for pain. This is given by sharply pricking the subject. The change here is usually a sharp depression, as where the breath is caught and held. In order to test the effect of odors, a bottle of perfume was held to the nostrils. The curve showed a deep and continued depression. The odor was pleasant, and they continued inhaling and were reluctant to exhale. With ammonia, the result was the contrary. It was unpleasant, and the curve became almost a straight line, as the breath was held until the obnoxious odor was removed. A curve was also taken while the subject was reading to herself. This gives a good normal curve with which to compare variations, for the thought is centered upon a subject designed only to hold the attention but not to arouse intense thought.

Some changes in curves were obtained by suggestion and others by accident. In the former, for instance, while the line was being made, the suggestion was given that the subject think of those she loved or hated, and of her desire to get out of prison. In many cases she followed the suggestion, and marked changes resulted. A mirror held before her with the request that she look at herself brought good reactions, and when asked what she was thinking she gave answers such as: "If I was at home, I would primp;" "Am getting old and ugly." Vanity was the emotion touched here. Fear was secured in this way: Placing an ordinary steel tube against the temple, she was told it was electricity, and if she remained still it would not hurt her much. Fear is shown in two ways: by a straight line where the breath was held in apprehension, or by a jagged line when the subject became nervous. The changes secured by accident were in this way: Sometimes the kymograph would run quietly for some time, and no stimulus was given. If there was a decided change in the curve, the instrument was stopped and the thought asked for. In many instances the subject gave a thought that seemed the true one. In other instances results were secured for which no questions were necessary. In this way curves were obtained while the subjects dropped asleep, or cried while I was talking about their release from prison—or sighed, coughed, or laughed. These were all spontaneous, and could not have been secured by request.

The results secured through the use of the kymograph simply demonstrate that there is the possibility that the emotions can be pictured accurately, and that assertions regarding the comparative emotional life of criminals and normal individuals can be based upon data other than the impressions of the observer.

The psychological tests suggest ways in which individuals and classes can be studied more accurately, and show that, while the criminal class is probably inferior to the educated class, the negro criminals fall so nearly within the same range that many theories of their limitations must have some doubt cast over them. The results of these tests are high or low, very much in proportion to the degree and kind of training and culture. There are not defects among the negroes which show idiocy or degeneracy so much as they show diverted and undeveloped capabilities. The perspective and range of ideas of the negroes are very narrow, as is also knowledge of the principle of adjustment to social forces; but nowhere do these results show that they have had either the length of time or opportunity required for these. The facility with which they comprehended what was required in the tests shows them to be capable of instruction.