V. Physical Measurements of Females

The Arena (May. 1901) Vol. XXV: pp. 510-520

The preceding articles close the consideration of the general factors influencing negro criminality. The remainder present the results of a study of individuals in Southern prisons, and relate almost exclusively to women. Similar methods applied to men would yield results that would vary only with sex. The results are not given as final. The application of the psychological method to sciological material is so new that the most liberal use made of its results will only indicate tendencies and the success with which it may be followed. It is enough to indicate that trustworthy data may be substituted for those which now depend upon observation alone.

These results are derived from three sources: the anthropometric, which discloses facts regarding the structure; the psychological, which shows those of the functioning; and the sociological, which gives those regarding the conditions under which the individual has developed. Not less than five hours is required for each subject, and, where it is difficult for them to comprehend or act, the time is longer. Usually one-half of the tests are taken at one sitting, and the order is varied, so that they do not become fatiguing. These tests were made in institutions in eight States. At each place a temporary laboratory was arranged in a favorable place within the boundaries of the institution, and the subjects selected from among those who could read and write. Although only ten were taken in each institution from populations of nearly 100, it was not always possible to secure literate ones. When illiterate subjects were tested, the necessary recording was done by the experimenter. In no institution was there difficulty in securing subjects. Some of the most hardened and dangerous criminals were eager to be tested, and seemed disappointed if they did not fulfill the requirements. Those not selected often had a personal grievance, as if I thought them not good enough, and would waylay me about the prisons, where I had absolute freedom, and ask to come. This was quite a different attitude from that of the white women in the Northern prisons visited by me. They were always suspicious, sometimes inclined to be quarrelsome, and only after much patience was their cooperation secured. The explanation is probably to be found in these facts: The Southern negro criminal is not migratory; he knows nothing about systems of identification (which the anthropometric measurements resemble), and does not feel that he has rights in prison. Among the whites a greater social protection is afforded by the State. The negro's attitude toward the white, due to slavery conditions and present status, have much to do with this desire to "oblige," which is found among even the criminals.

The laboratory once arranged, the anthropometric measurements were begun. These were understood by the subject—they possessed no power of "hoodoo"—and she was soon at her ease. In presenting the results for these, averages for the entire group are given, and these are com­ pared with the averages for the whites. In this way, errors arising from judgments upon one individual are avoided; but it must be remembered that larger averages are re­quired for definite conclusions. The results are recorded in centimeters, but are here reduced to inches, so as to give a more definite idea to the general reader.

Height

Negro criminals, 5 feet 3 inches; sitting height, 2.73 feet. The white criminals show a difference of three inches in the full height. Measurements of a large number of Wellesley students show the normal sitting height to be about 1¹⁄₁ inches greater than one-half of the full length. Among negro criminals this difference is 1¹⁄₄ inches, and among white criminals it is 2³⁄₈ inches. It is asserted by European writers that immoral women show a wide varia­tion from the normal. It may be that the racial element accounts for the negro's close approximation to the normal, although it is not yet proved.

In connection with height, weight should be considered. In the South it was impossible to secure this. The convict camps were often so remote from civilization that scales could not be secured, and it did not seem feasible to carry them over so great a distance as was traversed. From a close observation the conclusion is hazarded that the weight is greater than among white criminals, the average for whom is 122 pounds. The maximum weight was 160. This difference may be due to the following causes: Negro women do not have opportunities in the same degree for habits which enervate them. Many of them come from rural districts, and there are but few large cities where the many forms of vice are developed. The negroes' dissipation is confined to alcohol—cocaine, morphine, etc., being but little known. The struggle for existence, and consequent nervous exhaustion, is less intense than among the women found in the Northern workhouses and prisons. The life is less active and there is less strain. One fact, however, was clear. Lombroso states that professional immoral women show a tendency to obesity with increasing years. Negro and white criminals do not evidence this more than women observed in other spheres. Indulgence and abuse of physical desires lead physiologically to the same result, whether legitimate or illegitimate.

Cephalic Index

This is secured by measuring the length and width of the head and securing the ratio. This ratio is expressed thus: Below 75 it indicates that the individual is long headed (dolichocephalic); between 75 and 80, medium (mesocephalic); above 80, broad headed (brachycephalic). The first is said to be more characteristic of primitive races, the last of more advanced races, and bear some as yet undefinable relation to climate, soil, geographical locality, etc. It is now considered as an ethnic trait, and most writers have abandoned the position that it is peculiar to criminals. Although I secured as pure a negro type as possible, yet the average showed an index of 77 mesocephalic. The average for white criminals irrespective of race is 80.5. (Irish and German are the main elements in the descent.) The maximum among the negros was 85, the minimum 69—a wide range. It is almost impossible among criminals under forty, which was my age limit, to secure negroes of a pure type. There is a large admixture of Indian blood as well as of white. All the measurements of the face show differences due to race, and from these a few illustrations may be given.

The nasal index is secured in the same way as the cephalic. The average shows: Negroes, 87; whites, 57.5. This gives an idea of how much broader the negro's nose is; 100 represents a nose as broad as it is long, and among the whites it was only a trifle over one-half as broad as long. In some instances among the negroes, the width actually exceeded the length. The nose is rarely arched and almost always shows a deeper indentation at the root.

The measurements of the mouth show the same divergence. In length the differences are not so great: negroes, 2 inches; whites, 1³⁄₄ inches. In thickness of lips it is more evident, the whites averaging three-eighths and the negroes seven-eighths of an inch. Where Indian or white blood is traceable the tendency is toward less divergence.

The measurements of the height of forehead were a surprise. The average for the whites is 2³⁄₈ inches, and for negroes 2¹⁄₂. The narrow, receding forehead is more common than among the whites, but is less marked than a casual observer would suppose. The negro is prognathous, but among the criminals it does not seem more marked than among the normals. Criminologists assert that a heavy jaw is characteristic of criminals, but observations among both whites and negroes do not confirm this statement. The parietal and occipital regions of the head are, as a rule, better developed than are the temporal and frontal regions. From the measurements of the head and observations of the face and cranium (too technical for detail here) it seems clear that, with the infusion of Indian and white blood, the characteristics peculiar to the race are disappearing, and the negroes are more closely approaching the white race. This is seen in the cephalic index, width of face, prominence of cheeks, contour and height of forehead, weight of jaw, nasal index, thickness of lips, etc.

With regard to masculinity of the voice and features, upon which stress is placed by investigators, the results are negative. While measuring the whites, the writer had the opportunity of observing nearly one thousand women, and while among the negroes more than five hundred. Comparing these classes with those of the same social and economic grade who are not criminal, this statement does not appear to be true. The faces of women from these classes, criminal or normal, are often harsh and uncultured; the voices are loud and frequently coarse, but they do not possess the peculiar quality of masculinity, which is not a synonym for harshness, coarseness, etc. The garb worn in prisons has a tendency to bring out the harshness rather than the softness of a personality, and this is often not taken into account in comparisons.

There are but few exceptions to the rule that in nutrition and physical strength the negro criminals surpass the white. The strength of the hand grasp is taken with a dynamometer and registered in kilos, and shows the following results: white—right, 56; left, 53; negatives—right, 73; left, 69. This superior development, verified also by tests of the chest strength, may be due to the nature of the labor both outside and within the prison. It may be explained also partly by the causes given under height and weight. The sentences of negro women are often more excessive than among the whites, and they become accustomed to hard labor. The imprints of the hand, which are taken and preserved upon smoked paper, show many anomalies due to the excessive farm labor. The footprints of these criminal women, taken upon smoked paper, show no consistency. Some of them are highly arched, while others are entirely flat. I can find no connection between the degree of negro blood and the arch. The only result that seemed even approximately true was that the greater per cent. of the flat feet came from rural districts, where shoes were unknown and where outdoor labor was the rule. Foot-gear may have a relation to the shape of the foot. Certainly flat feet are not more characteristic of the criminal, in the absence of data for the normal person.

The following are the girths of the various parts of the body. These are not comparable with those for white criminals, as in many instances their consent could not be obtained: Ankle, 8⁵⁄₈ inches; calf, 14; neck, 12³⁄₄: waist, 27¹⁄₈: bust, 33.5; abdomen, 31³⁄₄.

These represent the most important measurements, and lead to the following conclusions:

1. Anthropometric measurements are needed for the United States, and will demonstrate that European facts and conclusions should be imported and accepted with reservations. For purposes of identification these measurements are unequaled.
2. Anthropometry reveals facts regarding structure the explanation for which must be sought in other fields. Thus weight and strength are related to the environment and cranial and facial characteristics to race, geography, history, etc.
3. That the present negro race is undergoing changes that will distinguish it from its predecessor.
4. That crime is a legal and social classification and has no root in anthropometry, when all other factors are considered. What relation location, training, education, capacity, opportunities, governmental and cultural standards, etc., bear to these anthropometrical characteristics, alleged of the criminals, is yet a problem and an almost uninvestigated field.
5. These measurements do not tend to show that the negroes possess more of these signs of degeneration than do the whites. Degeneration for the white and negro criminal, both in structure and functioning, must be different. The white has attained a higher standard, and the negro's degeneration must not be measured by the former's standard, to which he has not only not attained, but which he cannot yet comprehend. An individual cannot lose what neither he nor his race has attained.

The tests in psychology were designed for the purpose of supplying the defects in anthropometric data. When subjects are selected who have become accustomed to the prison, the conditions are excellent; for all the subjects have the same environment and are governed by the same rules. There are many emotions for which no satisfactory tests have been devised, and in others the methods are defective and the results untrustworthy.

The tests selected as among the most accurate for this investigation can be grouped under four heads: sensory, mental, co-ordinative and reactive, and emotional. Within the first group are included sight, hearing, touch, smell, and taste. As the methods are unfamiliar to many readers, a brief statement is given, together with the result.

For color blindness the ordinary test with wools is used. The subject is required to select the various shades of blue, green, red, and yellow, and match them correctly. Although the negroes had but little knowledge of colors, yet none were color blind. Out of two hundred women, both normal and criminal, I have not found one case of color blindness. There were often errors in the selection of the doubtful shades, but these were usually accompanied by such statements as: "That doesn't look right," "it's the best here," and "it does not suit," which show a consciousness of the defects. Color preference requires the use of the eyes in discrimination, but was also taken for its social value. Cords bearing strips of silk of various colors are placed in confusion before the subject. She is then required to select the color she likes best. She has a first and second choice. Of eighteen colors submitted the result is for the negroes: First choice—purple, 22; heliotrope, 19; dark blue, 12; lavender, 10; yellow, 2; other colors, one each. Second choice—purple, 18; brown, 10; heliotrope, 8; lavender, 6; yellow, 5; green, 5; other colors, 2 and 1 each. Among white criminals, blue is the preferred color—pink, red, yellow, lavender, black, and purple following in order. Among white students red is the leading color. The statement is often made that professionally immoral women prefer bright colors. Preference and choice are not necessarily the same, if by choice is meant real taste. Bright colors attract more attention, and this is very essential in the lives of these women. Brighter colors are as a rule cheaper, and they must often be controlled by this cause. Many of the lower classes wear castoff garments, in the selection of which they exercise no real choice whatever.

Tests in reading are given in order to determine the dif­ferences between the eyes. Printed letters of various sizes are given them to read, only one eye being in use at a time. The results show that twenty-eight were unable to read the letters because of illiteracy; twenty-one showed no defects; of the remaining 31, three showed defects that were the same for both eyes. The defects were not as a rule very marked; and where they were, the reason was ascertained if possible. This was often due to congenital causes and to social surroundings, as through injuries re­ceived during quarrels or diseases contracted.

The first test in hearing was taken with a Galton whistle. This shows the capacity for discerning high pitch. The instrument is so arranged that the amount of air that es­ capes when the bulb is pressed is registered in centimeters. The amount of air is so regulated by this scale that it be­ gins with a simple air sound and increases to a distinct whistle. The point at which the subject is able to deter­ mine whistle as distinct from air marks his capacity. This result is verified by starting with a whistle and requiring the subject to state when it disappears. The result's compare favorably with those of white criminals.

In addition to this test each ear is tried separately. The subject closes her eyes and one ear is filled with cotton. A watch is held close to the open ear and is gradually moved outward. The subject is requested to state when she hears the watch and when she does not. The point at which she is sure the watch is not heard is then recorded. This is verified by starting the watch at a point where it cannot be heard and moving it in until the tick is distinguishable. There are various ways of avoiding deception. The results show that the negroes are superior to the whites. There was only one negro who could not hear at a greater distance than two feet, while this was common among the whites, especially where catarrhal afflictions existed.

The tests for touch were four in number. The first was the æsthesiometric test, and was not very satisfactory. This instrument is so arranged that two points can be moved any desired distance apart, and this distance is registered in centimeters upon the rod. The points are first placed far apart, and when pressed upon the skin both can be distinctly perceived. This distance is gradually lessened until the subject is unable to tell if one or two points are placed upon the skin. The subject's eyes are closed, and, as close attention is required, the test is not always successful. The attention of the negroes is only fair, and is fatigued more easily than that of the white criminals.

The second test is that of the kinesthetic sensibility. Small wooden bottles filled with shot and varying in weight are given the subject, and by lifting them she is required to distinguish which is the heavier. The average shows that negroes can discriminate accurately where the difference is eleven grams.

The sensibility to pain is the third test, and is the most unsatisfactory. It is made upon the temporal muscle, but the fear of being hurt among the criminals cannot be eliminated. This test is taken with an instrument called an algometer, which, when pressed against the temple, regis­ters the pressure in grams. The subject is cautioned to speak when the least sense of pain is perceived. Where much pressure is required, the sensibility is dull. The negro compares favorably with the white criminal classes, and with the normal whites of a social grade not higher than that from which many criminals come.

The last test in this series is one for touch, and consists simply in requiring the subject to distinguish wools, cot­tons, velvets, satins, etc., by the aid of touch alone. In the wools the percentage of error was 33, in cottons 60, in silks and velvets 29. But few of the fabrics were named cor­rectly, and often the use determined to what class they belonged. Thus, where gingham was given and they knew it was cotton and its use was given "for aprons," the ac­curacy could not be doubted. There were a few instances where the hands of the women were so hardened from work that they could not distinguish the kind or grade of ma­terial.

The sensibility to smell is ascertained by giving the sub­ject carefully graded solutions. Mild solutions are first given, and the strength of these is increased until it is dis­cernible, or the subject fails to detect any odor. The solu­tions used are bay rum, camphor, and cloves. The negroes show 56 per cent. of errors, the white criminals 75 per cent., and the white students 47 per cent. Where the name of the solution could not be given, any use or association that indicated a correct perception was accepted. It is asserted that criminals are allied to savage races, and hence have the senses better developed and must rely more upon them in lieu of the higher reasoning processes. It would seem, however, that education and culture tend to develop higher sensibilities. If this were not true, one is at a loss to explain how some habitations in large cities are en­durable.

The sensibility to taste is the last in the series for the senses. Solutions of sweet, salt, bitter, and sour are used. A drop of each is placed first upon the end, then upon each of the sides, of the tongue, and the subject is required to name the solution. The percentage of errors for the negroes was 38; for the white criminals, 46. The sensibility to taste is conditioned by the use of alcohol, tobacco, snuff, etc. The coarse foods used and their preparation must tend to deaden this sensibility.

In the test of the physical senses the negroes are not more defective than the same class among the whites. The results tend to show that among the negroes tested the defects are not such as to prevent successful functionings, and they do not equal the degree necessary for degeneracy. Defects in color discrimination, reading, smell, and taste involve a consideration of social factors for their explanation. Where individuals possess senses that are even fairly good, there are opened many avenues of appeal to the higher faculties.