The task of compiling a bibliography on the city which is to be of use to the sociologist involves many difficulties. The materials are scattered over many fields of investigation ranging all the way from the various branches of the natural and social sciences to the practical arts and crafts. Much of the material is highly technical and abstract, while the rest is popular and full of human interest. If one attempts to survey the whole field he is likely to be led into tempting bypaths which lead far afield and in the end arrive nowhere. Moreover, the bibliographer has neither chart nor compass to guide him in his search, for the sociologist himself is not yet certain of the meaning of the concept “city” and of the relationship of his science to the phenomenon.

Specialization has gone so far that no one can hope to become an expert in more than one field in a lifetime. The sanitary engineer, interested in urban sanitation, is mainly concerned with drainage systems, pumps, sewer pipes, and incinerators; but the accountant, the political scientist, and the sociologist are not primarily interested in these matters. At first glance the sociologist might be tempted to pass over such material as lying outside his province, while he would be less likely to pass over materials relating to parks, playgrounds, schools, infant mortality, city-planning, and non-voting, because these institutions and processes have traditionally held the sociologist’s interest. And yet it is within the realm of possibility that such a question as that of the type of sewer pipe that is to be employed in a city drainage system may become one with which the sociologist is as legitimately concerned as the question of city-planning or juvenile delinquency.

The problem of deciding what is pertinent and what is extraneous is, then, obviously an important one. While the sociologist may be intensely interested in a subject matter pertaining to another science or craft, he has his own distinctive point of view, methodology, and objective, and since he cannot be an expert engineer, city manager, and sociologist all at the same time, he must accept the data of these other specialists when they happen to form the subject matter of his investigation. The sociologist is no more a housing specialist or a zoning specialist or a social case worker in a metropolitan social agency than he is an urban engineer or health officer, but he may have an important contribution to make to all of these activities, and may in turn acquire from these technicians a body of materials which shed light on his own problems and yield to sociological analysis. What is to be included or excluded from a sociological bibliography of the city depends upon the sociological definition of the city.

Although the literature on the city extends as far back as the city itself, the subject is now being studied with renewed interest and with a new point of view. If we were compiling a complete bibliography we would most likely begin with the classical discussion of Socrates in the second book of Plato’s Republic and follow the increasingly complex and scattered writings up to the present day, when we can scarcely find a science that does not have something to contribute to the subject. But this is not the aim of this bibliography. The attempt is here made to note just that part of the literature which has something to offer to the sociologist in the way of source material, point of view, method, and interpretation. A great deal, no doubt, has been included which is of little value. At the same time much has been necessarily omitted which is important. Some effort was made to avoid excessive duplication, but this attempt has not been wholly successful. The list of books and articles includes many works which were inaccessible at the time the bibliography was compiled, and whose contents could therefore not be examined. They are included because either the titles were suggestive or else the reputation of the authors merited attention.

The contribution which a bibliography is able to make to the study of any subject lies probably as much in the viewpoint it incorporates and the method of presentation it uses as in the references it presents. The scheme of classification here employed may lay claim to offering a rather new approach to the study of the city. It will probably have to be modified as new material is discovered and as the sociologists themselves continue to make their own distinctive contributions. It ought to offer an index to the aspects of the city that promise most in the way of results from research. At the same time it may be of assistance in organizing and funding the rapidly increasing body of knowledge concerning the sociology of the city.

A TENTATIVE SCHEME FOR THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE LITERATURE OF THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE CITY^[74]

I.

The City Defined

1.

Geographically: by site, situation, topography, density

2.

Historically: by political status, title, law

3.

Statistically: by census

4.

As an economic unit

5.

Sociologically

II.

The Natural History of the City

1.

Ancient cities: Asia, Egypt, Greece, Rome

2.

The medieval city

3.

The modern city

III.

Types of Cities

1.

Historical types

2.

Location types: sea coast, inland, river, lake

3.

Site types: plain, valley, mountain, hill, harbor, island

4.

Functional types: capital, railroad, port, commercial, industrial, resort, cultural

5.

The town, the city, and the metropolis

6.

Structural types: the natural city and the planned city

IV.

The City and Its Hinterland

1.

The trade area

2.

The commuting area: the metropolitan area

3.

The administrative city

4.

The city and its satellites

5.

The city and its cultural periphery

6.

The city and world economy

V.

The Ecological Organization of the City

1.

Natural areas

2.

The neighborhood

3.

The local community

4.

Zones and zoning

5.

The city plan

VI.

The City as a Physical Mechanism

1.

Public utilities: water, gas, electricity

2.

Means of communication: telephone, mails, telegraph, street-car, busses, automobile

3.

Streets and sewers

4.

Public safety and welfare: fire, police, health departments, social agencies

5.

Schools, theaters, museums, parks, churches, settlements

6.

Recreation

7.

City government: the city manager, the boss

8.

Food supply, stores (department and chain stores)

9.

Steel construction: the skyscraper

10.

Housing and land values

VII.

The Growth of the City

1.

Expansion

2.

Allocation and distribution of population: “city-building”

3.

Population statistics: natural growth and migration

4.

Mobility and metabolism in city life

5.

Social organization and disorganization and city growth

VIII.

Eugenics of the City

1.

Birth, death, and marriage rates: the span of life

2.

Sex and age groups

3.

Fecundity

IX.

Human Nature and City Life

1.

The division of labor: professions and specialization of occupations

2.

The mentality of city life

3.

Communication: contacts, public opinion, morale, ésprit de corps

4.

City types

X.

The City and the Country

1.

Conflicts of interest

2.

Comparison of social organization and social processes

3.

Differences in personality types

XI.

The Study of the City

1.

Systematic studies of cities

2.

The technique of the community survey

3.

Periodicals on the city

I. THE CITY DEFINED

Differences in standpoint and method in the various sciences show graphically in the definitions that each formulates of the same object. This is strikingly illustrated by a comparison of the definitions held by various scientific groups of the phenomenon of the city.

1. The city has been regarded by geographers as an integral part of the landscape. From this standpoint the city is an elevation, rising from the ground like a mountain. Such observations as changes in wind velocity and atmospheric conditions produced by the city regarded as an obstruction of the landscape have been noted. Human geography has lately come to regard the city as the most significant human transformation of the natural environment, and as part of the general product arising out of man’s relation with the natural environment. Urban geography has recently been gaining ground as a phase of regional geography. The location, physical structure, size, density, and economic function of cities are the chief factors emphasized. A substantial literature has grown up which has a direct bearing on the Sociological study of the city.

Aurousseau, M. “Recent Contributions to Urban Geography,” Geog. Rev., XIV (July, 1924), 444–55.

A concise statement of the geographical approach to the city, with a bibliography of the most authoritative and recent literature. Points out the recency of the study of urban geography and the difficulties involved in the methods. (II, 3; III.)

Barrows, Harlan H. “Geography as Human Ecology,” Annals of the Association of American Geographers, Vol. XIII (March, 1923), No. 1.

While not specifically concerned with the city, defines the viewpoint and method of the geographer.

Blanchard, Raoul. “Une méthode de géographie urbaine,” La Vie Urbaine, IV (1922) 301–19.

An exposition of the principles and methods of urban geography by one of the leading authorities. (III, 2, 3, 4, 6.)

Chisholm, G. G. “Generalizations in Geography, Especially in Human Geography,” Scott. Geog. Mag., XXXII (1916), 507–19. (III, 2, 3, 4.)

Hassert, Kurt. Die Städte geographisch betrachtet (Leipzig, 1907).

One of the early outlines of urban geography. (III, 2, 3, 4, 6.)

——. “Über Aufgaben der Städtekunde,” Petermann’s Mitteilungen, LVI (Part II, 1910), 289–94. (III.)

Jefferson, M. “Anthropography of Some Great Cities: A Study in Distribution of Population.” Bull. Amer. Geog. Soc., XLI (1909), 537–66.

Argues the need for a geographical definition of the city and suggests one based on density of population. (I, 3, 4; III; VII, 2.)

Schrader, F. “The Growth of the Industrial City,” Scott. Geog. Mag., XXXIII (1917), 348–52.

An extensive review of an article by Professor Schrader printed in Annales de Géographie, January, 1917. A statement of the forces responsible for the emergence of the geographical entity “the city,” especially of the industrial city. (I, 4; III, 2, 3, 4; IV, 1, 6; V, 5; VII, 1.)

Smith, J. Russell. “The Elements of Geography and the Geographic Unit,” School and Society, Vol. XVII, No. 441. (III, 2, 3, 4.)

2. The rise of the city introduced an entirely novel element into the historical process. As a result we find the historians among the first to study this phenomenon of human aggregation which culminated in the city. The historian is mainly interested in tracing the development of this new form of social life from the standpoint of structure and formal organization. The origin of the city has been traced, the ancient cities have been described, the Greek city-state, Rome, the rise of the medieval city, and its transformation into the modern city have found an important place in historical literature. The earlier studies are mainly political in nature. Only recently have historians devoted themselves to describing the new modes of life to which the city gave rise, and the interrelations between city and country. The city has been regarded chiefly as a political unit. The name “city” was given to a settlement because it had achieved a certain degree of political autonomy from the central government, or as an honorary title conferred for service rendered to a superior political entity, or, finally, as a result of incorporation or legal enactment.

Bücher, Karl. “Die Grossstädte in Gegenwart und Vergangenheit,” in the volume, Die Grossstadt, edited by Th. Petermann, Dresden, 1903. (I, 4; II; III; IV.)

Cunningham, William. Western Civilization (Cambridge, 1898–1900).

Has many references to the changing historical conceptions of the city. (I, 4; II. 2, 3.)

The Encyclopedia Americana, 1918 edition, Vol. VI, article, “City.” (II; IV, 3.)

The Encyclopedia Brittanica, 1911 edition, article, “City.” (II; IV, 3.)

Schäfer, D. “Die politische und militärische Bedeutung der Grossstädte,” in the volume Die Grossstadt, edited by Th. Petermann, Dresden, 1903.

A summary of the city as a political unit, together with its function from the military standpoint. (II; III, 1, 2, 3, 4; IV, 5.)

3. The statisticians have at various times been forced to define a city because census-taking and interpreting presupposes the existence of definite statistical units. The principal statistical methods of defining the city are: (1) by extent of the area of settlement, and (2) by number of inhabitants. In the history of the United States Census the city has been variously defined as an incorporated community of 8,000 inhabitants or more, then of 4,000, and at the present time of 2,500 inhabitants.

Blankenburg, R. “What Is a City?” Independent, XXCV (January 17, 1916), 84–85.

Meuriot, P. M. G. “Du criterium adopté pour la définition de la population urbaine,” Soc. de Statist. de Paris, LV (October, 1914), 418–30.

Reuter, E. B. Population Problems (Philadelphia and London, 1924).

Shows the changing statistical definitions of the city adopted at various times by the United States Census. Contains a great deal of other material relating to urban population. (VII, 2, 3; VIII, 1, 2.)

4. The economists have been interested in tracing the development of the city as an economic unit. The city, from this standpoint, may be regarded as typical of a certain stage in economic development. The rise of the city is intimately associated with the transition from handicraft to machine industry, the division of labor, the market, and exchange. Besides the great number of economic histories which trace the general movement toward urban economy there are many monographs of special cities whose economic history has been studied, and some instances of present-day developments in metropolitan economy.

Below, George von. “Die Entstehung des modernen Kapitalismus und die Hauptstädte,” Schmollers Jahrbuch, XLIII (1919), 811–28. (III, 4; IV, 1, 4, 6.)

Cheney, Edward Potts. Industrial and Social History of England (New York, 1910). (II, 2, 3; IV, 6.)

Day, Clive. History of Commerce (New York, 1920). (II; III, 4; IV, 6.)

Dillen, Johannes Gerard van. Het Economisch karakter der Middeleeuwsche Stad. I. De Theorie der gesloten Stad-Huishanding (Amsterdam, 1914). (II, 2; III, 4, 5; IV, 6.)

Gras, Norman S. B. An Introduction to Economic History (New York, 1922).

Considerable material on the rise of the city as an economic unit. (II, 2, 3; III, 4, 5; IV, 1, 2, 6; X, 1.)

Sombart, Werner. The Quintessence of Capitalism: A Study of the History and Psychology of the Modern Business Man. Translated by M. Epstein (New York, 1915). (II, 3; IV, 6; IX; X; 3.)

Waentig, H. “Die wirtschaftliche Bedeutung der Grossstädte,” in the volume, Die Grossstadt, edited by Th. Petermann, Dresden, 1903.

A thorough study of the increasing significance of the city as an economic unit. (III, 4; IV, 6.)

5. A sociological definition of the city must recognize that such a complex phenomenon cannot be adequately characterized in terms of any one single distinguishing mark or any set of formal and arbitrary characteristics. The city is, to be sure, a human group occupying a definite area, with a set of technical devices, institutions, administrative machinery, and organization which distinguish it from other groupings. But in this conglomeration of buildings, streets, and people the sociologist discovers a psychophysical mechanism. For him the city is a set of practices, of common habits, sentiments and traditions which have grown up through several generations of life and are characteristic of a typical cultural unit. Within this larger entity which is called the city he sees many other groupings of people and areas which are the result of growth and of a continuous process of sifting and allocation, each one of which areas has a character of its own and produces its special type of inhabitant. He sees a number of occupational and cultural groups whose interests and characteristics mark them off one from the other, but who, nevertheless, are conscious of their membership in some common larger group known as the city, and who participate in its life.

From another point of view the city is an institution which has arisen and maintains itself to some extent independently of the population because it satisfies certain fundamental wants, not only of the local inhabitants, but also of a larger area which has become dependent upon what the city has to give.

The city, finally, may be regarded as the product of three fundamental processes: the ecological, the economic, and the cultural, which operate in the urban area to produce groupings and behavior which distinguish that area from its rural periphery.

Izoulet, Jean. La Cité moderne et la métaphysique de la sociologie (Paris, 1894).

Maunier, René. “The Definition of the City.” Translated by L. L. Bernard, Amer. Jour. Sociol., XV, 536–48.

A critical examination of the existing definitions of the city in the light of sociological theory. (I, 1, 2, 3, 4.)

Almost every textbook in the field of sociology has some sort of a working definition of the city. In addition there are available the various conceptions of the city underlying the social surveys.

The history of the city is almost synonymous with the history of civilization. The sociologist is interested in the natural history of the city as a phase of social evolution. Unlike the historian, he is not aiming to get the concrete facts of the rise and the decay of any particular city, but rather seeks to find in the study of the history of various cities the genesis of the typical city as a basis for the classification of types of cities and of social processes, irrespective of time and place.

1. Most of our ideas as to the origin of the city we owe to the findings of the archeologists. Exactly when cities began to appear in the story of mankind is still a doubtful question. We hear of cave cities in the paleolithic age. When we come down to historic times we find numerous cities whose main purpose was defense. The ancient cities of Memphis, Thebes, Babylon, and several others were already imposing aggregations of human beings and were centers of administration and of culture. Such a vast literature exists on the Greek city-state and on Rome, that is available in almost any library, that only a few references need be cited here.

Clerget, Pierre. “Urbanism: A Historic, Geographic, and Economic Study,” Smithsonian Institution Annual Report, 1912 (Washington, D.C., 1913), pp. 653–67. (II, 2, 3; III; V, 1, 2, 3; VI; VII; VIII.)

Coulanges, Fustel de. The Ancient City: A Study of the Religion, Laws, and Institutions of Greece and Rome (Boston, 1894). Translated by Willard Small.

Davis, W. S. A Day in Old Athens: A Picture of Athenian Life (New York, 1914).

Fowler, W. W. The City-State of the Greeks and Romans (London and New York, 1895). (I, 2.)

Friedländer, L. Roman Life and Manners under the Early Empire. Authorized translation by L. A. Magnus from the 7th rev. ed. of the Sittengeschichte Roms (London, 1908–13), 4 vols. (III, 4.)

Rostovtzeff, Michael. “Cities in the Ancient World,” in volume Urban Land Economics, edited by R. T. Ely, Institute for Research in Land Economics, Ann Arbor, 1922.

Zimmern, Alfred E. The Greek Commonwealth: Politics and Economics in Fifth-Century Athens (2d rev. edition; Oxford, 1915).

2. Historians are still doubtful whether the medieval city was the product of a continuous growth starting with Rome or whether, around the year 1000, the city was born anew after some centuries of reversion to a simpler form of social life. There is little doubt, however, that the medieval city not only had a different structure but also played a decidedly different rôle than the Greek or the Roman city. The typical medieval city was fortified and had achieved a certain degree of political autonomy from the central government. It played its leading rôle, however, as the center of trade and commerce and the home of the guilds. With the sixteenth century there came an important change over the urban life of Europe. New inventions, such as that of gunpowder, made the city wall obsolete. The beginnings of industry spelled the doom of the narrow guild system. In the light of this new order of things the medieval city of a former day—which was really a town—either had to adapt itself to the new forces that had become operative and join the ranks of growing cities or else become sterile and sink into decay.

Bax, E. B. German Culture, Past and Present (London, 1915).

Traces the development of the medieval German city. (II, 3).

Benson, E. Life in a Medieval City, Illustrated by York in the Fifteenth Century (London, 1920).

Consentius, Ernst. Alt-Berlin, Anno 1740 (2d ed.; Berlin, 1911).

One of a great number of special studies in the early history of German towns and cities. (III, 6.)

Coulton, George Gordon. Social Life in Britain from the Conquest to the Reformation (Cambridge, 1918).

Green, Alice S. A. (Mrs. J. R.) Town Life in the Fifteenth Century (2 vols., New York, 1894). (III, 5.)

Pirenne, Henry. Medieval Cities: Their Origins and the Revival of Trade. (Princeton, N.J., 1925).

Traces the growth of cities and their institutions in relation to the revival of trade. (I, 4; III, 4; IV, 4; VII, 1.)

Preuss, Hugo. Die Entwicklung des Deutschen Städtewesens (Leipzig, 1906).

A standard history of the development of the German city. (I, 2; II, 3; IV, 3; VI, 7; VII, 1.)

Stow, John. The Survey of London (1598) (London and New York, 1908).

3. The modern city marks the advent of a new epoch in civilization. Its rise has been accompanied by, and, in turn, is the result of a profound revolution in economic, political, intellectual, and social life. The modern man is to so great an extent a product of the modern city that in order to grasp the full significance of the transformation the city has wrought we must get a view of its origins and development. The city, as we find it today, is by no means a finished product. Its growth is so rapid and its energy so great that it changes its complexion almost daily, and with it the character of mankind itself.

Baily, W. L. “Twentieth Century City,” Amer. City, XXXI (August, 1924), 142–43.

Beard, C. A. “Awakening of Japanese Cities,” Review of Reviews, LXIX (May, 1924), 523–27.

Bücher, Karl. Industrial Evolution. Translated by S. M. Wickett (London and New York, 1901).

The modern city from the standpoint of industrial society. (II, 1, 2; III, 4, 5; IV, 6; VII, 1; IX, 1.)

Die Stadt Danzig: ihre geschichtliche Entwickelung und ihre öffentlichen Einrichtungen (Danzig, 1904).

Shows the development of a modern city and its characteristic institutions. (III, 1, 2, 3; VI.)

Ebeling, Martin. “Grossstadtsozialismus.” Vol. XLIV of Grossstadtdokumente, edited by Hans Ostwald (Berlin, 1905).

A cross-section of the modern city from the standpoint of the workingman. (IV, 3, 6; V, 2, 3; VI; VII, 2, 5; VIII, 1.)

Ende, A. von. New York (Berlin, 1909).

Typical of a great number of descriptions of cities by travelers and writers of tourists’ guidebooks. The best known are those of Baedeker, of Leipzig, covering every important European city.

George, M. Dorothy. London life in the XVIIIth Century (New York, 1925).

Contains an excellent selected bibliography on the city of London. A cross-section of London life on the threshold of the modern era. (III; VII, 1, 2.)

Hare, Augustus J. C. Paris (London, 1900).

One of a series of books of various European cities, being intended as a guide for tourists.

Hessel, J. F. The Destiny of the American City. Champaign, Illinois, 1922.

The trend of American city growth and its problems.

Howe, Frederic C. The Modern City and Its Problems (New York, 1915).

A short outline of the development of the modern city, a statement of the implications of city civilization, a discussion of the city as a physical mechanism, and suggestions for an extension of the principle of municipal ownership and management, city-planning, and co-operation. (III, 5; IV, 2, 3; V, 4, 5; VI; VII, 1, 2; IX, 3.)

Irwin, Will. The City That Was: A Requiem of Old San Francisco (New York, 1906).

Johnson, Clarence Richard (editor). Constantinople Today, or, the Pathfinder Survey of Constantinople: A Study in Oriental Social Life (New York and London, 1923). (III, 2; V; VI; VII; VIII; IX, 1, 3.)

Kirk, William (editor). A Modern City: Providence, Rhode Island, and Its Activities (Chicago, 1909). (III, 4; VI; VII.)

“London: A Geographical Synthesis,” Geog. Rev., XIV (1924), 310–12.

A summary of the co-ordinated geographical study of a modern city. (III; IV; V; VI, 3.)

Pollock, H. M., and Morgan, W. S. Modern Cities (New York, 1913).

A general study of American cities and their problems. (III, 6; V, 5; VI.)

Strong, Josiah. The Twentieth Century City (New York, 1898).

Zueblin, Charles. American Municipal Progress (new and revised edition; New York, 1916).

Attempts to formulate a science of “municipal sociology.” (VI; VII; VIII, 1.)

Almost every modern city has several histories of its recent development, and the current magazines contain a great deal of general information about particular cities. The list of typical works on the modern city might be extended indefinitely, but the numerous bibliographies already available make this task unnecessary. There are published bibliographies of some of the more important European and American cities. Books on London, for instance, are so numerous that there exists in the city of London a library devoted exclusively to works on that city. A similar volume of literature is available about Paris, Rome, and other centers of culture around which there has grown up an historical tradition which gives to the locality a world-wide human interest. There are a number of books on such cities as Moscow, the city of churches, which emphasize the fact that this metropolis has occupied a position of dominance in Russian life because of its spiritual leadership, which expresses itself institutionally in its magnificent cathedrals. There are other Meccas of this sort, the literature on which would occupy many pages.

The inclusion of such books as Augustus Hare’s Paris and von Ende’s New York in this list might well raise the question as to why these two rather unimportant works were included and others of a similar nature excluded. Their pertinence in this connection was thought to lie in the fact that they are typical of books on many cities which are intended as guides to tourists or represent accounts of travelers, which are not included in this bibliography, but which might prove of interest to the student dealing with the individualities and eccentricities of individual cities.

There has grown up in recent years a renewed interest in the variety and diversity of American cities. Many such books have appeared, often in series including several cities, which give more than a traveler’s account, and actually succeed in entering into the spirit of the city. Grace King’s volume on New Orleans is perhaps the best, if not the most representative, of these American volumes.

Each city, like every other object in nature, is, in a sense, unique. A scientific study of the city presupposes, however, that a study of a number of cities will reveal certain classes or types, the members of which have certain common characteristics which mark them off from other types. There are, obviously, many criteria, on the basis of any one of which cities might be classified and distinguished from each other. Certain fundamental types appear in the literature of the subject of which the sociologist may profitably take note.

1. One of the very first characteristics that we observe about a city is its age. The difference between European and American cities in this respect is so obvious as to be inescapable. The cities of Western Europe, when compared with some of those of the Orient, again show their relative youth. A detailed study of the city reveals this important conservative influence of the early experiences of a city. Streets, walls, names, and the tradition that has grown up through centuries of existence leave their indelible impress upon the city as we find it today. Experienced observers are able to distinguish cities belonging to one historical period from those of another by their appearance, just as they are able to differentiate between the cities of adjoining countries. These differences show themselves not only in a dominant type of architecture, but also in general atmosphere, the mode of life of the inhabitants, and the activities that find expression in the life of the people.

Fleure, Herbert John. “Some Types of Cities in Temperate Europe,” Geog. Rev., X, No. 6 (1920), 357–74.

Traces the historical influences on the character of cities. (II; III, 2, 3, 5, 6.)

——. Human Geography in Western Europe: A Study in Appreciation (London, 1919). (III.)

Fraser, E. “Our Foreign Cities,” Sat. Eve. Post, CXCVI (August 25, 1923), 14–15.

The background of its inhabitants gives the city its dominant atmosphere. (V, 3; VII, 2, 3.)

Gamble, Sidney D. Peking: A Social Study (New York, 1921).

A survey of an oriental city. Incidentally reveals a strange variety of the modern city. (II; III, 4, 6; IV, 3; V; VI; VII; VIII; IX, 3.)

Hanslik, Erwin. Biala: eine deutsche Stadt in Galizien (Wien: Teschen und Leipzig, 1909).

The persistence of a historical type in a changing environment. (III, 6.)

Homburg, F. “Names of Cities,” Jour. Geog., XV (September, 1916), 17–23.

Rhodes, Harrison. American Towns and People (New York, 1920).

Uhde-Bernays, Herman. Rothenburg of der Tauber (Leipzig, 1922).

One of a series of volumes on “cities of culture.” The persistence of the historical influences on the atmosphere of cities. (III, 6.)

2. The means of communication that are in use at any given period in history determine the location of human settlements. For this reason the dominant location of the ancient and medieval city was on the seacoast or near a navigable body of water. The founding and the development of cities still depends on their location with reference to the means of communication in use and the consequent accessibility of the region. The coming of the railroads made large inland cities possible. Settlements located favorably along the seacoast or along an important river or lake enjoy a natural advantage which has an important bearing on their growth. Location is an important competitive element which produces fundamental types.

Faris, J. T. “The Heart of the Middle West,” Travel, XLII (December, 1923), 30–34.

Geddes, Patrick. “Cities, and the Soils They Grow From.” Survey Graphic (April, 1925), pp. 40–44.

A rather philosophical conception of the city as related to the natural environment. Suggestions concerning geotechnics, afforestation, and regional development. (III, 2, 3; V, 5.)

Jefferson, Mark. “Some Considerations on the Geographical Provinces of the United States,” Ann. of the Ass. of Amer. Geographers, VII (1917), 3–15.

Develops the theory that the country as a whole can be divided into provinces according to location on seacoast, inland lake, river, etc., and that the cities of each province are characterized by factors arising out of their location. (III, 3, 4; IV, 1, 6.)

Mercier, Marcel. La Civilisation Urbaine au Mzab: Étude de Sociologie Africaine (Alger, 1922).

The study of an African city in a desert region, whose immediate site is determined by water supply and transportation routes. The directions and the limitation of the social activities of the community are dictated by the environment. (III, 1, 6; IV, 1, 6; V, 1; VI; VII, 2; IX, 1.)

Ratzel, Friedrich. “Die geographische Lage der grossen Städte,” in volume “Die Grossstadt,” edited by Th. Petermann, Dresden, 1903.

A thoroughgoing consideration of the location types of cities by one of the earliest and most competent students of the subject. Offers the theory, also held by Cooley (C. H. Cooley, The Theory of Transportation) that cities arise at the end of a route of transportation, or at a juncture of several such routes, or at the point where one route of transportation joins another; where, for instance, a land transportation route ends and a waterway begins. Ratzel also gives one of the earliest and soundest geographical definitions of the city: “A permanent condensation (or dense settlement) of human beings and human habitations covering a considerable area and situated in the midst (or at the juncture) of several routes of transportation.” (I; II; III, 1, 3, 4, 5, 6; IV, 1; V, 5; VII, 2.)

Ridgley, Douglas C. “Geographic Principles in the Study of Cities,” Jour. of Geog., XXIV (February, 1925), 66–78.

A reiteration of Cooley’s theory: “Population and wealth tend to collect wherever there is a break in transportation.” (I, 1; VII, 1, 2.)

Wright, Henry C. The American City: An Outline of Its Development and Functions (Chicago, 1916).

Chapter i outlines the location of cities and classifies them according to their purpose. The rest of the book is taken up with government, finance, administrative problems, such as health, police, education, housing, zoning, and the effect of the city on the citizens. (III, 3, 4; V, 4, 5; VI; VII, 2; IX.)

3. A classification in use especially among the geographers is that arising from differences in site. It is important to distinguish between the general situation of a city, i.e., its location with reference to the surrounding territory and the means of communication with other centers of population and resources, and its immediate local setting which influences its structure and growth and brings with it certain other more deep-seated consequences.

Biermann, Charles. “Situation et Site de Lausanne,” Bull. Soc. Neuchateloise de Geog., XXV (1916), 122–49. Reviewed in Geog. Rev., VI (1918), 285.

Distinguishes between general location and immediate site as factors determining the character of the city. Emphasizes the limitations imposed on the modern city by its medieval defensive system. (III, 1, 2; VI, 3.)

Brunhes, Jean. Human Geography: An Attempt at a Positive Classification, Principles and Examples. Translated by T. C. LeCompte (Chicago and New York, 1920).

The most comprehensive and basic work in human geography at the present time available. Discusses the city as a form of occupation of the soil. Describes the principles and gives many illustrations of the effect of location on the growth and the character of cities. (I, 1; II, 2, 3; III; IV; VII, 1, 2.)

King, C. F. “Striking Characteristics of Certain Cities,” Jour. School Geog., IV (1900), 201–7, 301–8, 370–91. (III, 1, 2, 4, 6.)

Semple, Ellen C. “Some Geographical Causes Determining the Location of Cities,” Jour. School Geog., I (1897), 225–31.

Smith, Joseph Russell. Human Geography: Teachers’ Manual (Philadelphia and Chicago, 1922).

4. Cities may be classified according to the functions they characteristically perform in national or world economy. The competitive process tends to operate between cities as well as within cities, so as to give each city a rôle defining its status in the world-community. The capital city has certain features which distinguish it from a commercial and industrial city. The railroad city is fundamentally different from a resort city, from the religious Mecca, the university seat, and the international port. Even within these classes we find further specialization. Thus, we have a steel city, a film city, an automobile city, a rubber city, and a tool city. The ecological process on a national and world-wide scale is not sufficiently well known at the present time to permit of any definite system of classification, but that there is a strong tendency toward functional specialization between cities as entities is no longer open to doubt.

Cornish, Vaughan. The Great Capitals: An Historical Geography (London, 1922).

A study of the variations within the type of city serving as a political center. A work which has given a great deal of impetus to the study of functional types of cities. (III, 1.)

“F.O.B. Detroit,” Outlook, III (1915), 980–86.

A sample of the industrial type of city which is built around the production of a single product—the automobile. (IV, 6; IX, 1.)

Homburg, F. “Capital Cities,” Jour. Geog., XIX (January, 1920), 8–15.

Kellogg, Paul U. (editor). The Pittsburgh District (New York, 1914).

Introductory volume of the Pittsburgh Survey, one of the most comprehensive studies of an industrial, urban area. Contains material bearing on many phases of city structure and city life. (V; VI; VII; VIII; IX, 1, 3.).

Kenngott, George F. The Record of a City: A Social Survey of Lowell, Massachusetts (New York, 1912).

A cross-section of a typical manufacturing city. (V; VI; VII; VIII; IX, 1, 3.)

McLean, Francis H., Todd, Robert E., and Sanborn, Frank B. The Report of the Lawrence Survey (Lawrence, Massachusetts, 1917). (V; VI; VII; VIII; IX, 1, 3.)

“The Right of the Community to Exist,” Living Age, CIII (October 4, 1919), 46–48.

Roberts, Peter. Anthracite Coal Communities (New York, 1904).

A study of mining communities in the United States. (V; VI; VII; VIII; IX, 1, 3.)

Steele, Rufus. “In the Sun-Spot,” Sunset, XXXIV (1915), 690–99.

A study of Los Angeles, the city of moving pictures. (IV, 6; IX, 1.)

Semple, Ellen. “Some Geographical Causes Determining the Location of Cities,” Jour. School Geog., I (1897), 225–31.

——. Influences of Geographic Environment, on the Basis of Ratzel’s System of Anthropogeography (New York, 1911).

A comprehensive work dealing with the factors in the natural environment in relation to the settlement and the activity of man. (III, 2, 3.)

Tower, W. S. “Geography of American Cities,” Bull. Amer. Geog. Soc., XXXVII (1905), 577–88.

Distinguishes between industrial, commercial, political, and social centers and suggests that cities might combine several of these functions. Gives examples of each type, pointing out their distinctive characteristics. (III, 2, 3.)

Wood, Arthur Evans. Some Unsolved Problems of a University Town (Philadelphia, 1920.)

A study of housing, public health, and dependency in Princeton, New Jersey. (VI, 10; VII, 5.)

In the current periodical literature one can find numerous articles dealing with the various functional types of cities of the present day. The National Geographic Magazine has many numbers which are devoted to individual cities from this standpoint.

5. The town, the city, and the metropolis are genetically related concepts which represent three successive stages of an ever widening zone of interrelationships and influences. The town represents a local aggregation which is intimately bound up with a rather narrow surrounding rural periphery. It is the product of limited means of communication and constitutes a more or less self-sustaining economic unit. The city is a more highly specialized unit and, as a result, is a part of a wider interrelated area, while the metropolis tends to become a cosmopolitan unit based upon a relatively high degree of development of the means of communication. The differences between these three urban types is not only expressed in terms of number of inhabitants and area of occupation, but also in social organization and in attitudes. There is a tendency to divide the United States up into provinces according to the zone of influence of the greater metropolitan units dominating the surrounding territory and dependent upon it.

Cottrell, E. A. “Limited Town-Meetings in Massachusetts,” Nat. Mun. Rev., II (July, 1918), 433–34.

While dealing primarily with an administrative problem, points out one of the essential differences between town and city. (V, 3; VI, 7; IX, 3.)

Febvre, Lucien. A Geographical Introduction to History. Translated by E. G. Mountsford and T. H. Paxton (New York, 1925).

Contains a clear statement of the problems of human geography. Part III, chap. iii, on towns is suggestive. (I, 1; II; III.)

Gide, Charles. “L’habitation hors la ville,” Revue Economique Internationale (January, 1925), 141–57.

Gilbert, Bernard. Old England: A God’s-Eye-View of a Village (Boston, 1922).

A cross-section of village life and economy.

Gras, Norman S. B. “The Development of Metropolitan Economy in Europe and America,” Amer. Hist. Rev., XXVII (1921–22), 695–708.

Differentiates clearly between manorial, village, town, city, and metropolitan economy. (I, 4; II; III, 1; IV, 1, 2, 6; X, 1, 2.)

Lasker, B. “Unwalled Towns,” Survey, XLIII (March 6, 1920), 675–80.

Lohman, K. B. “Small Town Problems,” Amer. City, XXIII (July, 1920), 81.

Maine, Sir H. S. Village Communities in the East and West (7th ed.; London, 1913).

The most authoritative English study of the village. (II, 1, 2; III, 1; IV, 3; VI, 7; X, 2.)

McVey, Frank L. The Making of a Town (Chicago, 1913). (IV, 1, 2, 3; V, 4, 5; VI; VII, 1.)

Shine, Mary L. “Urban Land in the Middle Ages,” in volume, Urban Land Economics, Institute for Research in Land Economics (Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1922).

Shows the transition from town to city life. Contains valuable collection of material on the medieval city. (I, 2, 4; II, 2, 3; III; V, 4, 5; VI; VII, 2, 5; IX, 1; X, 1, 2.)

Sims, Newell Leroy. The Rural Community, Ancient and Modern (New York, 1920). (II, 1, 2; III, 1, 6; IV, 1; V, 3.)

Slosson, P. “Small-Townism,” Independent, CVI (July 9, 1921), 106–7. (X, 2, 3.)

Wilson, Warren H. Quaker Hill: A Sociological Study (New York, 1907).

A picture of a community held together by religious and social bonds. Shows the transition from a primary to a secondary type of contact. (V, 3; VII, 2; IX, 3.)

6. The city may be the unplanned product of the interaction of successive generations with the environment, or it may be the result of intentional activity with a specific end in view. We hear of ancient cities springing up at the will of an emperor bent on glorifying his name. There are cities in America that are the premeditated product of individuals or corporations bent on creating an adjunct to a factory. There are capital cities in America owing their existence to the decisions of a legislature. The planned city differs from the “natural” city not only in its structural form but in its functional aspects and its capacity for growth. Probably no planned city can grow into a metropolis if it does not somehow find for itself an important function in world-economy and earn its place in the competitive process.

Aurousseau, M. “Urban Geography: A Study of German Towns,” Geog. Rev., XI (October, 1921), 614–16.

A review of a German work (Geisler, Walter, “Beiträge zur Stadtgeographie.” Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft für Erdkunde, Nos. 8–10 [Berlin, 1920], 274–96). Shows the influence of the old town plan on the development of the modern city. (II, 2, 3; III.)

Bodine, H. E. “Study of Local History Teaches Value of City-Planning,” American City, XXV (September, 1921), 241–45.

Cushing, C. P. “Rambler on the Standardized City,” Travel, XXIX (July, 1917), 40.

Ely, Richard T. “Pullman: A Social Study,” Harper’s New Monthly Magazine, LXX (December, 1884), 453–65.

While more of a general survey than a special study of the influence of the city plan upon the actual growth of the city, it does show some disharmonies arising out of the attempt to control a planned urban project in the face of growth and unexpected complications. (IV, 4; VII, 3; IX, 1.)

Ormiston, E. “Public Control of the Location of Towns,” Econ. Jour., XXVIII (December, 1918), 374–85.

Shows some of the abortive attempts to establish towns in unfavorably situated environments. Suggests public control as a possible preventive measure, if based on thorough study of all factors involved in the possibilities for growth and development. (III, 2, 3, 4; IV, 6.)

Whitbeck, R. H. “Selected Cities of the United States,” Jour. Geog., XXI (September, 1922), 205–42.

Contains several maps showing city structure.

The city-planning literature contains many instances of comparisons between planned cities and natural cities as well as examples of the effects of the city plan on the actual development of the city, and the opposite phenomenon—the effect of the natural development of the city on the city plan.

IV. THE CITY AND ITS HINTERLAND

Far from being an arbitrary clustering of people and buildings, the city is the nucleus of a wider zone of activity from which it draws its resources and over which it exerts its influence. The city and its hinterland represent two phases of the same mechanism which may be analyzed from various points of view.

1. Just as Galpin, in his Social Anatomy of a Rural Community, was able to determine the limits of the community by means of the area over which its trade routes extend, so the city may be delimited by the extent of its trading area. From the simpler area around it the city gathers the raw materials, part of which are essential to sustain the life of its inhabitants, and another part of which are transformed by the technique of the city population into finished products which flow out again to the surrounding territory, sometimes over a relatively larger expanse than the region of their origin. From another point of view the city sends out its tentacles to the remotest corners of the world to gather those sources of supply which are not available in the immediate vicinity, only to retail them to its own population and the rural region about it. Again, the city might be regarded as the distributor of wealth, an important economic rôle which has become institutionalized in a complex financial system.

Chisholm, George G. “The Geographical Relation of the Market to the Seats of Industry,” Scott. Geog. Mag., April, 1910.

Galpin, C. J. “The Social Anatomy of an Agricultural Community,” Agricultural Experiment Station of the University of Wisconsin, Research Bulletin 34 (Madison, Wisconsin, 1915).

Deals primarily with trade routes of an agricultural area, but throws considerable light on the urban trade area. (V, 2; X, 2.)

Levainville, Jacques. “Caen: Notes sur l’évolution de la fonction urbaine,” La Vie Urbaine, V (1923), 223–78.

Through its emphasis on the economic functions of the city this study makes clear the significance of the trade areas.

Newspapers, business houses, and mail-order houses in particular have published numerous discussions and graphic statements of their circulation or their trade relations with the surrounding territory. Such documents are to be found in numerous specialized trade and commercial journals. In addition there are government reports and publications of chambers of commerce bearing on this question.

2. One of the outstanding prerequisites of any city is a local transportation system which makes possible ready access of the population living in diverse sections to their places of work, the centers of trade, of culture, and of other social activities. The city consists of not merely a continuous densely populated and built up area, but of suburbs and outlying regions which by means of rapid transit are within easy reach of urban activities. This area has been termed the commuting area. Although the inhabitants of this larger area of settlement may not be under the same taxing, policing, and governing authorities as the inhabitants of the city proper, they think of themselves as part of the same metropolis and actively participate in its life.

Edel, Edmund. Neu Berlin, volume L in “Grossstadt Dokumente Series,” edited by Hans Ostwald, Berlin, 1905.

Discusses the changes brought about by recent growth in the city of Berlin, with emphasis on the recently built-up suburbs. (VII, 1, 2, 4.)

Lueken, E. “Vorstadtprobleme,” Schmollers Jahrb., XXXIX (1915), 1911–20.

Discussion of the governmental and technical problems brought about by the rise of the suburbs. (IV, 3; V, 1; VI.)

Wright, Henry C. “Rapid Transit in Relation to the Housing Problem,” in Proceedings of the Second National Conference on City Planning (Rochester, 1910), pp. 125–35.

Considers the possibility of distributing the urban population in the suburbs by building up a rapid transit system. (VI, 2, 3, 10.)

3. That part of the inhabitants of a given metropolitan area who actually are under the same administrative machinery may constitute only a relatively small part of the inhabitants of the metropolitan district as a whole. The size of the administrative unit tends to lag behind the size of the metropolis proper. Suburbs are incorporated gradually, and changes in charters and legal organization often do not keep pace with the rapid expansion of the district. The city of London proper is only a relatively small part of metropolitan London. As a result of such anomalous situations many difficulties occur in interpreting statistical data compiled by governmental agencies.

Gross, Charles. Bibliography of British Municipal History (New York, 1897). (I, 2; VI, 7.)

Howe, Frederic C. European Cities at Work (New York, 1913).

A general survey of the structure and the government of the European city. (II, 3; VI; VII, 1.)

——. The British City: The Beginnings of Democracy (New York, 1907). (II, 2, 3; VI.)

Kales, Albert M. Unpopular Government in the United States (Chicago, 1914).

A discussion of the administrative problems of the city, emphasizing the anomalous situations brought about by legal restrictions in the face of urban development. (VI, 7; X, 1, 2.)

Maxey, C. C. “Political Integration of Metropolitan Communities,” National Munic. Rev., XI (August, 1922), 229–53. (IV, 2; VI, 7.)

Wilcox, Delos F. The American City: A Problem in Democracy (New York, 1906).

A work dealing mainly with the administration of the city. Chapter i, “Democracy and City Life in America,” chapter ii on “The Street,” and v on “The Control of Leisure” are suggestive. (VI; VII, 5.)

4. One of the latest phases of city growth is the development of satellite cities. These are generally industrial units growing up outside the boundaries of the administrative city, which, however, are dependent upon the city proper for their existence. Often they become incorporated into the city proper after the city has inundated them, and thus lose their identity. The location of such satellites may exert a determining influence upon the direction of the city’s growth. These satellites become culturally a part of the city long before they are actually incorporated into it.

Taylor, Graham Romeyn. Satellite Cities: A Study of Industrial Suburbs (New York and London, 1915).

The most comprehensive study of its kind. (III, 4; VII, 2; IX, 1.)

Wright, R. “Satellite Cities,” Bellman, XXV (November 16, 1918), 551–52.

5. The city has come to be recognized as the center of culture. Innovations in social life and in ideas gravitate from the city to the country. Through its newspapers, theaters, schools, and museums, through its traveling salesmen and mail-order houses, through its large representation in the legislatures, and through many other points of contact with the inhabitants of the rural periphery about it, the city diffuses its culture over a large area. The city is in this respect an important civilizing agent.

Desmond, S. “America’s City Civilization: The Natural Divisions of the United States,” Century, CVIII (August, 1924), 548–55.

Holds that America is creating a new type of city civilization of a decentralized type. Several outstanding American cities are described as cultural entities and as exerting a dominating influence over a large rural area, thus suggesting the emergence of cultural provinces. (III, 1, 2, 3; IX, 2.)

Petermann, Theodor. “Die geistige Bedeutung der Grossstädte,” in the volume, Die Grossstadt (Dresden, 1903).

One of the best concise statements on the cultural significance of the city from the standpoint of the rural periphery. (IV, 6; IX, 1, 2; X, 1, 2, 3.)

Wells, Joseph. Oxford and Oxford Life (London, 1899).

An example of a cultural type of city from the functional standpoint, and its influence. (II, 2, 3; III, 4.)

There are a number of studies of cities as cultural centers. The city of Moscow has often been described as the city of churches, for instance, and as such has exercised an influence over the life of Russia all out of proportion to its function in other respects. Similar studies are available of Rome, Venice, Dresden, and a number of others.

6. With the advent of modern methods of communication the whole world has been transformed into a single mechanism of which a country or a city is merely an integral part. The specialization of function, which has been a concomitant of city growth, has created a state of interdependence of world-wide proportions. Fluctuations in the price of wheat on the Chicago Grain Exchange reverberate to the remotest part of the globe, and a new invention anywhere will soon have to be reckoned with at points far from its origin. The city has become a highly sensitive unit in this complex mechanism, and in turn acts as a transmitter of such stimulation as it receives to a local area. This is as true of economic and political as it is of social and intellectual life.

Baer, M. Der internationale Mädchenhandel, Vol. XXXVII in “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905).

Shows that the large city is the center of the world white-slave traffic. (III, 4; VII, 5; IX, 4.)

Bernhard, Georg. Berliner Banken, Vol. VIII in “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905).

While primarily a study of Berlin banks, shows the large city as the center of the economic life of the world. (III, 4; V, 1; IX, 1, 4.)

Jefferson, Mark. “Distribution of British Cities and the Empire,” Geog. Rev., IV (November, 1917), 387–94.

“English cities are unique in that they have taken the whole world for their countryside.... The conception of the British empire as the direct result of English trade in English manufactures, which in turn are largely a response to English treasures in coal and iron, is strongly reenforced by the distribution of her great cities.” (III, 4; VI, 8.)

Olden, Balder. Der Hamburger Hafen, Vol. XLVI in “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905).

The influence of world-commerce on the city. (III, 3, 4; IV, 4; V, 1; IX, 1, 4.)

Penck, Albrecht. Der Hafen von New York, Vol. IV of the collection, “Meereskunde” (Berlin, 1910).

An excellent view of the traffic in the harbor of New York. (III, 2, 3, 4.)

Zimmern, Helen. Hansa Towns (New York, 1895).

An historical example of a typical function of cities in world-economy. (I, 2; II, 2.)

V. THE ECOLOGICAL ORGANIZATION OF THE CITY

Just as the city as a whole is influenced in its position, function, and growth by competitive factors which are not the result of the design of anyone, so the city has an internal organization which may be termed an ecological organization, by which we mean the spatial distribution of population and institutions and the temporal sequence of structure and function following from the operation of selective, distributive, and competitive forces tending to produce typical results wherever they are at work. Every city tends to take on a structural and functional pattern determined by the ecological factors that are operative. The internal ecological organization of a city permits of more intensive study and accurate analysis than the ecology of the city from the external standpoint. For the latter phase of the subject we will have to rely on further investigations of the economists, the geographers, and the statisticians. The facts of the local groupings of the population that arise as a result of ecological factors are, however, readily accessible to the sociologist.

I. Plant ecologists have been accustomed to use the expression “natural area” to refer to well-defined spatial units having their own peculiar characteristics. In human ecology the term “natural area” is just as applicable to groupings according to selective and cultural characteristics. Land values are an important index to the boundaries of these local areas. Streets, rivers, railroad properties, street-car lines, and other distinctive marks or barriers tend to serve as dividing lines between the natural areas within the city.

Addams, Jane. A New Conscience and an Ancient Evil (New York, 1912).

A discussion of vice and the vice district in Chicago. (V, 4; VI, 6.)

Anderson, Nels. The Hobo: The Sociology of the Homeless Man (Chicago, 1923).

The study of a typical deteriorated area in the city where the homeless men congregate. (VII, 5; IX, 4.)

Bab, Julius. Die Berliner Bohème, Vol. II in “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905).

An intimate study of a natural area which has developed an exotic atmosphere as a result of the social isolation of its members and their peculiar personalities. At the same time furnishes an excellent history of a local community and is a unique contribution to the mentality of city life. (V, 3; VII, 2; IX, 2, 3, 4.)

Booth, Charles. Life and Labor of the People of London (London, 1892).

The most comprehensive study of London in existence. Especially interesting in this connection for its description of the natural areas of that city. Volume V, on East London, offers a wealth of insight into city life. These volumes cover almost every phase of city life and should be cross-referenced with most of the categories suggested in this outline.

Brown, Junius Henri. The Great Metropolis: A mirror of New York (Hartford, 1869).

Gives a view of New York at about the middle of the nineteenth century. Is of interest for a comparative study of the city then, and now from the point of view of its natural divisions. (VII, 2; IX, 1.)

Denison, John Hopkins. Beside the Bowery (New York, 1914). (VII, 2.)

Dietrich, Richard. Lebeweltnächte der Friedrichstadt, Vol. XXX in “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905).

A view of Berlin’s bright-light area. (VI, 6; VII, 2, 5; IX.)

Goldmark, Pauline. West-Side Studies (New York, 1914).

Historical and social investigations of local urban areas, especially from the point of view of social welfare and pathology. (V, 2, 3; VI; VII, 2, 5; VIII; IX, 1.)

Harper, Charles George. Queer Things about London; Strange Nooks and Corners of the Greatest City in the World (Philadelphia, 1924). (II, 3; V, 2, 3; VI, 3, 5, 8, 10.)

Kirwan, Daniel Joseph. Palace and Hovel, or Phases of London Life; Being Personal Observations of an American in London (Hartford, 1870). (II, 3; VI; VII, 2; IX, 1, 4.)

Ostwald, Hans O. A. Dunkle Winkel in Berlin, Vol. I in “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905).

A description of the more obscure areas in Berlin, particularly those of the underworld. (II, 3; VII, 2; IX, 2, 3, 4.)

Scharrelmann, Heinrich. Die Grossstadt; Spaziergänge in die Grossstadt Hamburg, 1921.

Sketches of city areas encountered in a walk about the city.

Seligman, Edwin R. A. (editor). The Social Evil, with Special Reference to Conditions Existing in the City of New York (New York and London, 1912).

The vice area of a large city. Typical of a number of surveys of moral areas in the larger cities of the United States. Compare, for instance, with the report of the Illinois investigation, The Social Evil in Chicago. (VII, 2, 5; IX, 1.)

Smith, F. Berkley. The Real Latin Quarter (New York, 1901). (V, 3; VII, 2; IX, 2, 3, 4.)

Strunsky, Simeon. Belzhazzar Court, or, Village Life in New York City (New York, 1914). (V, 2, 3; VII, 2; IX, 2, 3, 4.)

Timbs, John. Curiosities of London (London, 1868). (IX, 1, 4.)

Werthauer, Johannes. Moabitrium, Vol. XXXI of the “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905).

A report of a personal investigation of the rooming-house area of Berlin. (VII, 2, 4; IX, 2, 3, 4.)

Woods, Robert A. The City Wilderness: A Settlement Study of South End, Boston (Boston and New York, 1898).

One of a number of similar studies viewing the city and its slums from the standpoint of the settlement worker. (V, 2, 3; VI; VII, 5.)

Young, Erle Fiske. “The Social Base Map,” Jour. App. Sociol., IX (January-February, 1925) 202–6.

A graphic device for the study of natural areas. (VII, 2.)

2. The neighborhood is typically the product of the village and the small town. Its distinguishing characteristics are close proximity, co-operation, intimate social contact, and strong feeling of social consciousness. While in the modern city we still find people living in close physical proximity to each other, there is neither close co-operation nor intimate contact, acquaintanceship, and group consciousness accompanying this spatial nearness. The neighborhood has come to mean a small, homogeneous geographic section of the city, rather than a self-sufficing, co-operative, and self-conscious group of the population.

Daniels, John. America via the Neighborhood (New York, 1920). (V, 3; IX, 3.)

Felton, Ralph E. Serving the Neighborhood (New York, 1920). (V, 3; VI, 4.)

Jones, Thomas Jesse. The Sociology of a New York City Block, “Columbia University Studies in History, Economics, and Public Law,” Vol. XXI (New York, 1904).

A minute cross-section of a congested urban block. (VI; VII, 2, 4, 5; VIII; IX, i, 3.)

McKenzie, R. D. The Neighborhood: A Study of Local Life in Columbus, Ohio (Chicago, 1923).

An excellent study of local groupings. (V, 1, 3; VII, 1, 2, 4, 5.)

Perry, Clarence A. “The Relation of Neighborhood Forces to the Larger Community: Planning a City Neighborhood from the Social Point of View,” Proceedings of the National Conference of Social Work (Chicago, 1924), pp. 415–21. (V, 2, 3; VII, 5.)

White, Bouck. The Free City: A Book of Neighborhood (New York, 1919).

A fantastic, sentimental picture of what city life might become if the author’s views of social organization were a reality. (V, 3, 5; IX, 1, 2, 3.)

Williams, James M. Our Rural Heritage; the Social Psychology of Rural Development (New York, 1925).

A book which has as its subject matter the analysis of rural life in New York State up to about the middle of the last century. Chapter iii deals with the distinction between neighborhood and community. (V, 3; X, 1, 2, 3.)

3. The local community and the neighborhood in a simple form of society are synonymous terms. In the city, however, where specialization has gone very far, the grouping of the population is more nearly by occupation and income than by kinship or common tradition. Nevertheless, in the large American city, in particular, we find many local communities made up of immigrant groups which retain a more or less strong sense of unity, expressing itself in close proximity and, what is more important, in separate and common social institutions and highly effective communal control. These communities may live in relative isolation from each other or from the native communities. The location of these communities is determined by competition, which can finally be expressed in terms of land values and rentals. But these immigrant communities, too, are in a constant process of change, as the economic condition of the inhabitants changes or as the areas in which they are located change.

Besant, Walter. East London (London, 1912).

A remarkable account of an isolated community in a metropolis. (V, 1; VII, 2; IX, 1, 2, 3, 4.)

Buchner, Eberhard. Sekten und Sektierer in Berlin, Vol. VI in “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1904).

An intimate account of the habitat of the many obscure religious sects that congregate in local communities in the large city. (VII, 2; IX, 2, 3, 4.)

Burke, Thomas. Twinkletoes: A Tale of Chinatown (London, 1917).

A romantic account of London’s Chinatown. (VII, 2.)

Daniels, John. In Freedom’s Birthplace (Boston and New York, 1914).

The Negro community in Boston. (VII, 2.)

Dreiser, Theodore. The Color of a Great City (New York, 1923).

The various aspects of city life by an observer with keen insight and rare literary genius. (IX, 2, 4)

Dunn, Arthur W. The Community and the Citizen (Boston, 1909).

An elementary textbook in civics. Gives a simple presentation of the concept community. (V, 3, 2; I, 4; II, 3; IV, 3; VI.)

Eldridge, Seba. Problems of Community Life: An Outline of Applied Sociology (New York, 1915).

A sociological textbook dealing with the various phases of community organization and disorganization. (V, 2, 4, 5; VI; VII, 5; VIII; IX, 3.)

Hebble, Charles Ray, and Goodwin, Frank P. The Citizens Book (Cincinnati, 1916).

Discusses the foundations of community life, its cultural activities, business interests, governmental activities, and gives suggestions on the future city. (VI, 7; IX, 3.)

Jenks, A. E. “Ethnic Census in Minneapolis,” Amer. Jour. Sociol., XVII (1912), 776–82.

The ethnic groupings in a large city.

Jewish Community of New York City: The Jewish Communal Register of New York City (New York, 1917–18).

A collection of studies on the organization, size, distribution, history, and activities of the New York Jewish Community. (VII, 2, 3, 4, 5; IX, 3, 4.)

Katcher, Leopold (pseudonym, “Spektator”). Berliner Klubs, Vol. XXV in “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905).

An inside view of club life in Berlin. (VI, 6; IX, 1, 2, 3, 4.)

Lucas, Edw. V. The Friendly Town: A Little Book for the Urbane (New York, 1906). (V, 1; IX, 2, 3.)

Maciver, R. M. Community; a Sociological Study, Being an Attempt to Set Out the Nature and Fundamental Laws of Social Life (London, 1917).

Distinguishes between natural areas and communities, showing how occupational and cultural groupings enter into the political process. (IV, 3; V, 1, 2, 4; VI, 7.)

Maurice, Arthur Bartlett. The New York of the Novelists (New York, 1916).

The New York as seen through the eyes of literary men.

Park, Robert E., and Miller, H. A. Old-World Traits Transplanted (New York, 1921).

A study of immigrant communities. (VII, 2, 5; IX, 3, 4.)

Sears, C. H. “The Clash of Contending Forces in Great Cities,” Biblical World, XLVIII (October, 1916), 224–31. (VII, 5; IX, 1, 3.)

Symposium, “The Greatest Negro Community in the World,” Survey Graphic, LIII (March 1, 1925), No. 11.

A collection of articles on the Negro community in Harlem, New York. (VII, 2, 3; IX, 1, 3, 4; X, 1.)

Williams, Fred V. The Hop-Heads: Personal Experiences among the Users of “Dope” in the San Francisco Underworld (San Francisco, 1920). (VII, 2; IX, 3, 4.)

4. The city may be graphically depicted in terms of a series of concentric circles, representing the different zones or typical areas of settlement. At the center we find the business district, where land values are high. Surrounding this there is an area of deterioration, where the slums tend to locate themselves. Then follows an area of workmen’s homes, followed in turn by the middle-class apartment section, and finally by the upper-class residential area. Land values, general appearance, and function divide these areas off from each other. These differences in structure and use get themselves incorporated in law in the form of zoning ordinances. This is an attempt, in the face of the growth of the city, to control the ecological forces that are at work.

Cheney, C. H. “Removing Social Barriers by Zoning,” Survey, XLIV (May, 1922), 275–78. (V, 1, 5; VII, 2.)

Eberstadt, Rudolph. Handbuch des Wohnungswesens und der Wohnungsfrage (4th ed.; Jena, 1910).

An encyclopedic work on housing, city-zoning, and planning. (VI, 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10; VII.)

Kern, Robert R. The Supercity: A Planned Physical Equipment for City Life (Washington, D.C., 1924).

A planned model city with co-operative services of many sorts, with zoning as an important feature. (V, 5; VI.)

Wuttke, R. Die deutschen Städte (2 vols.; Leipzig, 1904).

A collection of articles on various technical phases of city life. Article 4, “Die Baupolizei,” by Oberbaukommissar Gruner, is a discussion of the public regulation of buildings and the function of zoning and building codes in the modern city. (VI; VII, 3; VII, 1, 2.)

In addition there are available reports of zoning commissions of the various cities and numerous articles in magazines dealing with the administrative aspects of city life, such as The American City, in which digests, criticisms, and discussions of these zoning devices may be found.

5. The needs of communal life impose upon the city a certain degree of order which sometimes expresses itself in a city plan which is an attempt to predict and to guide the physical structure of the city. The older European cities appear more like haphazard, unplanned products of individualistic enterprise than the American cities with their checkerboard form. And yet, most European cities were built according to some preconceived plan which attempted to take account of the needs of the community and the limitations of the environment. There is a tendency, however, for the city to run counter to the plan which was laid out for it, as is seen, for instance, in the problems of city-planning of the city of Washington. The fact is that the city is a dynamic mechanism which cannot be controlled in advance unless the conditions entering into its genesis and its growth are fully known. City-planning, which has grown into a highly technical profession, is coming to be more concerned with studying the problems of a changing institution, with city growth, and the forces operating in city life than with the creation of artistic schemes of city structure. On the one hand the importance of devising a scheme of wholesome, orderly existence in the city is being recognized, on the other hand, the limitations of any attempt to make the city conform to an artificial plan impresses itself upon the experience of the technicians engaged in this work.

Agache, Auburtin and Redont. Comment reconstruire nos cités destruites, reviewed in Scott. Geog. Mag., XXXIII, 348–52, and Annales de Geog., January, 1917, by F. Schrader.

A criticism of suggested plans for the reconstruction of cities in the French devastated area. (III, 6.)

American Institute of Architects. City-Planning Progress in the United States (New York, 1917).

Bartlett, Dana W. The Better City: A Sociological Study of a Modern City (Los Angeles, 1907). (III, 6.)

English Catalogue, “International Cities and Town-Planning Exhibition, Gothenburg, Sweden, 1923.”

A comprehensive summary of the town-planning movement. A work to be consulted by all students of the subject. (II, 3; V, 4.)

Geddes, P. Cities in Evolution: An Introduction to the Town-Planning Movement and the Study of Civics (London, 1915).

An introductory statement by the foremost authority in England. (II; III; IV, 2; V, 4; VI, 3, 5, 6, 9; VII, 1, 2.)

Haverfield, F. J. Ancient Town Planning (Oxford, 1913). (II, 1; III, 6.)

Hughes, W. R. New Town: A Proposal in Agricultural, Industrial, Educational, Civic, and Social Reconstruction (London, 1919).

Lewis, Nelson P. The Planning of the Modern City: A Review of the Principles Governing City-Planning (New York, 1916).

Mulvihill, F. J. “Distribution of Population Graphically Represented as a Basis for City-Planning,” American City, XX (February, 1919), 159–61. (VII, 2.)

Purdom, C. B. The Garden City (London, 1913). (IV, 6.)

Roberts, Kate L. The City Beautiful: A Study of Town-Planning and Municipal Art (New York, 1916). (VI, 3, 5, 6.)

Sennett, A. R. Garden Cities in Theory and Practice (2 vols.; London, 1905). (III, 6.)

Stote, A. “Ideal American City,” McBride’s, XCVII (April, 1916), 89–99.

Symposium. “Regional Planning,” Survey Graphic, May 1, 1925.

Contains a series of suggestive articles on various aspects of city growth and city-planning. (V, 5; VII, 1, 2, 3; III, 6.)

Tout, T. F. Medieval Town-Planning (London, 1907). (II, 2; III, 6.)

Triggs, H. Inigo. Town Planning (London, 1909).

VI. THE CITY AS A PHYSICAL MECHANISM

The aggregation of large numbers of human beings within a restricted area, as is represented by the modern city, makes possible, and at the same time makes imperative, the communal effort to satisfy certain essential needs of all the inhabitants. The manner in which these needs are met has become institutionalized. The facilities which have been created to meet these needs make up the physical structure of the city as a social mechanism.

1. The need for uninterrupted water supply, fuel, and light have brought it about that the means of satisfying these wants are either in the hands of the city as a corporate body, or, if in private hands, are controlled and regulated by the city government. These public utilities are of interest to the sociologist only in so far as they have a bearing on group life and call forth attitudes, sentiments, and behavior which influences the group. These factors may have an important relation to the ecological organization of the city, and may furnish indexes to the selective and distributive processes which result in the grouping of the population. The lighting of the city may have a direct bearing on the crime of the city, the water supply, on the health, etc. The regulation of public utilities may become issues at elections and call forth factionalism, thus bringing into play the social groupings in the community.

Fassett, Charles M. Assets of the Ideal City (New York, 1922).

A brief statement of various structural aspects of the city, with a bibliography. (V, 4, 5; VI.)

Grahn, E. “Die städtischen Wasserwerke,” in Wuttke, Die Deutschen Städte (Leipzig, 1904), pp. 301–44.

A statement of the water-supply problem in German cities.

Höffner, C. “Die Gaswerke,” in Wuttke, Die Deutschen Städte (Leipzig, 1904), pp. 198–238.

A statement of the evolution and present status of the technique of gas supply in the modern city.

Jephson, H. L. The Sanitary Evolution of London (London, 1907). (VI.)

Kübler, Wilhelm. “Über städtische Elektrizitätswerke,” in Wuttke, Die Deutschen Städte, pp. 239–300.

An account of the municipal electricity works in German cities.

Most books on the modern city contain a chapter on public utilities, and a great many technical journals and municipal reports are accessible giving detailed accounts of various aspects of both the technical, the administrative, and the functional sides of the public utility situation.

2. One of the most characteristic features of city life is the high degree of intercommunication. This is made possible by technical devices, such as the telephone, street cars, and the automobile. While the sociologist has no intrinsic interest in these technical devices, they become an object of study as factors entering, for instance, into the problem of mobility of the city population.

D’Avenel, G. le Vicomte. Le Mécanisme de la Vie moderne (3 vols.; Paris, 1922).

Among many other aspects of the city as a physical mechanism, has a chapter on publicity, urban transportation, and communication. This work has gone through many editions and is written in a popular style. (VI; IX, 1.)

Harris, Emerson Pitt. The Community Newspaper (New York, 1923). (IX, 3.)

Kingsbury, J. E. The Telephone and Telephone Exchanges: Their Invention and Development (London and New York, 1915).

Lewis, H. M., and Goodrich, E. P. Highway Traffic in New York and Its Environs (New York, 1924).

The results of a study embodied in a report for the Committee on a Regional Plan for New York and its Environs. (IV, 2; V, 4, 5; VI, 2; VII, 2, 4.)

Park, Robert E. The Immigrant Press and Its Control (New York, 1922).

A study of the organization and the influence of the press in the immigrant communities of the large city (IX, 3.)

The municipal transportation and communication question has developed a large literature which is to be found in many separate works on the telephone, telegraph, radio, street-car systems, busses, automobile, mail service, newspaper, and railways as well as in municipal reports, technical and administrative journals, and textbooks on the city.

3. The existence of streets, pavement, alleys, sewers, and other devices of the same sort that characterize the city as a physical mechanism influence the behavior of the person and the group, and as such are of interest to the sociologist.

Hirschfeld, Magnus. Die Gurgel Berlins, Vol. XLI in “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905).

A study of the main street of Berlin from the standpoint of its effect on the individual and as a revelation of city life. (VI, 2; VII, 2, 4.)

Quaife, Milo Milton. Chicago’s Highways, Old and New (Chicago, 1923).

The changes wrought in the character of the city as viewed from the point of view of the streets. (VI, 2; VII, 1, 2.)

Whipple, G. C. “Economical and Sanitary Problems of American Cities,” American City (February, 1921), p. 112. (VI.)

4. The many devices in the realm of public safety and welfare which are the characteristic product of the city, such as fire department, police, health inspection, and the manifold activities of the social agencies concern the sociologist as typical expressions of group life in the city environment.

Addams, Jane. Twenty Years at Hull House; With Autobiographical Notes (New York, 1910).

City life as seen in a typical social agency—the social settlement. (V, 2, 3; VII, 5.)

Assessor (pseudonym). Die Berliner Polizei, Vol. XXXIV in “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905).

A personal account of the police force of the modern city. (IX, 1.)

Anonymous. Berliner Gerichte, Vol. XXIV in “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905).

Daily experiences in a typical city court.

Carbaugh, H. C. Human Welfare Work in Chicago (Chicago, 1917).

A brief account of the various specialized social agencies operating in the large city. (VII, 5; IX, 1.)

Fitzpatrick, Edward A. Interrelationships of Hospital and Community, reprint from Modern Hospital, February, 1925. Pamphlet.

A sketch of the possible place and nature of a health agency in a modern urban community.

Fosdick, Raymond, and Associates. Criminal Justice in Cleveland, directed and edited by Roscoe Pound and Felix Frankfurter (Cleveland, 1922). (VI, 7.)

Fosdick, Raymond B. European Police Systems (New York, 1915).

——. American Police Systems (New York, 1920).

Harrison, Shelby M. Public Employment Offices; Their Purpose, Structure, and Method (New York, 1924). (IX, 1.)

Richmond, Mary E. The Good Neighbor in the Modern City (Philadelphia and London, 1913).

Suggestions to the layman about the social agencies and their work in the large modern city. (V, 2; VII, 5.)

Wilson, Warren H. The Evolution of the Country Community: A Study in Religious Sociology (Boston, New York, Chicago, 1912).

Gives types of organizations and institutions. (V, 3; X, 2.)

In almost every large city the number of social agencies and public institutions is so large and their work so varied that directories of these agencies have been made available. In addition, reports and surveys of many cities are at hand, and the periodical literature is tremendous.

5. The cultural needs of the community find expression in the city in the form of schools, theaters, museums, parks, monuments, and other public enterprises. They exert an influence extending beyond the boundaries of the city itself, and may be regarded as agencies for the definition of the person’s wishes. They are indicative of the level of social life which the community has achieved.

Carroll, Charles E. The Community Survey in Relation to Church Efficiency (New York, 1915).

Typical of studies bearing on the place of religious and cultural agencies in city life. (X, 2.)

For a basic statement of the problem of education in the modern city, compare Dewey, John, Democracy and Education (New York, 1916).

Moore, E. C. “Provision for the Education of the City Child,” School and Society, III (February 19, 1916), 265–72.

Phelan, J. J. Motion Pictures as a Phase of Commercialized Amusement in Toledo, Ohio (Toledo, Ohio, 1919).

Tews, Johannes. Berliner Lehrer, Vol. XX in “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905).

An intimate study of a professional group in the large city. (IX, 1.)

Trawick, Arcadius McSwain. The City Church and Its Social Mission (New York, 1913).

Turszinsky, Walter. Berliner Theater, Vol. XXIX of “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905). (III, 4; V, 1; VI, 6.)

Ward, Edward J. The Social Center (New York and London, 1915). (VI, 6; VII, 5.)

6. The leisure-time activities which the city produces are so intimately connected with the life of the people that they furnish clues as to the pathology or disorganization typical of city life. The dance hall, the movie, the amusement park, the back-yard or vacant lot improvised playground, and the many other forms of public, commercialized, or improvised recreation facilities are phases of group life which cannot escape the Sociologist.

Arndt, Arno. Berliner Sport, Vol. X in “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905).

Describes various specialized, institutionalized, and commercialized forms of sport life in Berlin. (IX, 2, 4.)

Bowman, LeRoy E., and Lambin, Maria Ward. “Evidences of Social Relations as Seen in Types of New York City Dance Halls,” Jour. Social Forces, III (January, 1925), 286–91. (IX, 2, 3, 4.)

Buchner, Eberhard. Berliner Variétés und Tingeltangel, Vol. XXII in “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905).

Analysis of various types of the variété, cabaret, and burlesque, and the development of these institutions in the city. (IX, 1, 3, 4.)

Günther, Viktor. Petersbourg s’amuse, Vol. XXXII in “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905).

The recreational activities of the Russian capital. (III, 4; V, 1; IX, 2.)

Herschmann, Otto. Wiener Sport, Vol. XII in “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905).

Describes the recreational activities of the dominant population groups in Vienna. (IX, 4.)

Ostwald, H. O. A. Berliner Kaffeehäuser, Vol. VII in “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905).

Human behavior in the coffee houses of Berlin. (IX, 1, 4.)

——. Berliner Tanzlokale, Vol. IV in “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905).

Intimate glimpses of the diverse types of dance halls and their habitués. (V, 2, 3; VII, 5; IX, 1, 4.)

Phelan, John J. Pool, Billiards, and Bowling Alleys as a Phase of Commercialized Amusement in Toledo (Toledo, 1919). (VII, 5)

Rhodes, H. “City Summers,” Harper’s, CXXXI (June, 1915), 2–15.

The seasonal aspects of city recreation.

7. The city government shows, perhaps more clearly than many other phases of city life, the extent to which the city has revolutionized social life and has changed the habits and attitudes of the people. In the city government we can see the various local, national, cultural, and interest groups attempting to exert their influence. In the city we see the political boss as a typical product of an anomalous situation. Here we find such phenomena as non-voting, the clash between local and occupational groups, and many other disharmonies between the needs of the people and the institutions that are present to satisfy them.

Bruere, Henry. The New City Government (New York, 1913).

A study of the commission form of government in cities.

Capes, William Parr. The Modern City and Its Government (New York, 1922).

Clerk (pseudonym). Berliner Beamte, Vol. XLIII in “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905).

A study of the types of civil servants developed by modern city government. (IX, 1, 2, 4.)

Cleveland, Frederick A. Chapters on Municipal Administration and Accounting (New York, 1909 and 1915).

Cummin, G. C. “Will the City-Manager Form of Government Fit All Cities—Large Cities—Machine-Controlled Cities?” National Municipal Rev., VII (May, 1918), 276–81.

Ely, Richard T. The Coming City (New York, 1902).

An address taking up some of the problems connected with the government, public interest in administration, and corruption in the modern American city. (VII, 5.)

Gilbert, Arthur Benson. American Cities: Their Methods of Business (New York, 1918).

Goodnow, Frank J. City Government in the United States (New York, 1904 and 1909).

Hill, Howard C. Community Life and Civic Problems (New York, 1922).

An elementary textbook for community civics classes. (V, 3; VI.)

McKenzie, R. D. “Community Forces: A Study of the Non-Partisan Municipal Elections in Seattle,” Journal of Social Forces (January, March, May, 1924).

A study of the relation between local groupings and political attitudes. (IV, 3; V, 1, 2, 3; VII, 5; IX, 3.)

Munro, W. B. Municipal Government and Administration (New York, 1923). (II, 3; IV, 3; VII, 1.)

——. The Government of American Cities (3d ed.; New York, 1921).

A standard textbook on city government in the United States. By the same author, a companion volume, The Government of European Cities. (VI, 7; IV, 3.)

Odum, Howard W. Community and Government: A Manual of Discussion and Study of the Newer Ideals of Citizenship (Chapel Hill, North Carolina, 1921).

Steffens, Lincoln. The Shame of the Cities (New York, 1907).

An exposure of corruption in city governments. (VII, 5.)

Toulmin, Harry A. The City Manager: A New Profession (New York, 1915). (IX, 1.)

Weber, G. A. Organized Efforts for the Improvement of Methods of Administration in the United States (New York and London, 1919).

Weyl, Walter E. “The Brand of the City,” Harper’s, CXXX (April, 1915), 769–75.

Wilcox, Delos F. Great Cities in America: Their Problems and Their Government (New York, 1910). (IV, 3; VI; VII, 1, 5.)

Zueblin, Charles. A Decade of Civic Development (Chicago, 1905).

A discussion of the state of American city civilization at the beginning of the twentieth century. (V, 4, 5; VI; VII, 1; VIII, 1.)

8. The complexity, specialization, and dependence of the city are seen clearly in the methods by which the city gets its food supply and other vital necessities for the existence of the population. The food trains, milk trains, cattle trains, the miles of refrigerator cars and coal cars that daily enter the large city, the warehouses and the stores, the countless delivery wagons that line the streets—all these are evidence of what a tremendously complex and efficient organization has grown up to meet the urgent wants, the desires for subsistence and for luxury of our millions of city-dwellers. Here too we sometimes see examples of what anxiety and what calamity might result from the slightest interruption or dislocation in the methods of supplying the city with these varied specialties. The department store and the chain store are characteristic city institutions, corresponding to the grouping of the city population.

Colze, Leo. Berliner Warenhäuser, Vol. XLVII in “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905).

Berlin stores. (III, 4; IV, 1; V, 1; IX, 1.)

Loeb, Moritz. Berliner Konfektionen, Vol. XV in “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905).

Ready-made clothing establishments. (V, 1, 4; IX, 1.)

Parker, Horatio Newton. City Milk Supply (New York, 1917). (IV, 1.)

Shideler, E. H. “The Business Center as an Institution,” Jour. Appl. Sociol., IX (March, April, 1925), 269–75.

An outline of the local trade center in the urban community and its significance in city life. (IV, 1; V, 1, 2, 3; VII, 1, 2.)

9. One of the latest phases of city development is the direct result of the invention of a new technique of building. Steel construction has made possible the skyscraper, the elevated railroad, and the subway, and thus introduced a new dimension into city growth. This new technique has made possible a density, per unit of ground surface, which has given the city an entirely new complexion. The full effects of this new invention are still not fully known.

Holborn, I. B. S. “The City: The Outer Expression of an Inner Self,” Art World, III (December, 1917), 217–21. (III, 1; IX, 2.)

Mumford, Lewis. Sticks and Stones: A Study of American Civilization (New York, 1925).

An evaluation and critique of the architectural aspects of American cities and their cultural significance. (V, 5; VI, 9; X, 2.)

Nichols, C. M. (editor). Studies on Building-Height Limitations in Large Cities (Chicago, 1923).

Written from the point of view of the real-estate profession.

Schumacher, Fritz. “Architektonische Aufgaben der Städte,” in Wuttke, Die Deutschen Städte, pp. 47–66.

Discussion of the changing needs and methods in urban construction.

The literature on the significance of the steel-construction technique is still very small. The professional engineers and architects have contributed some to their journals, but the interpretation of their contributions is still to be made.

10. Land values are the chief determining influence in the segregation of local areas and in the determination of the uses to which an area is to be put. Land values also determine more specifically the type of building that is to be erected in a given area—whether it shall be a tenement house, an office building, a factory, or a single dwelling—what buildings shall be razed, and what buildings are to be repaired. The technique of determining city land values has developed into a highly specialized and well-paid profession. Land values are so potent a selective factor that the human ecologist will find in them a very accurate index to many phases of city life.

Aronovici, Carol. Housing and the Housing Problem (Chicago, 1921).

A study of the relation between rent, income, and housing.

Arner, G. B. L. “Urban Land Economics,” in volume, Urban Land Economics, Institute for Research in Land Economics (Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1922).

Gives a summary of land values in New York City and an outline of the subject. (VII, 1, 2.)

George, W. L. Labor and Housing at Port Sunlight (London, 1909). (III, 4, 6; V, 4, 5; IX, 1.)

“Housing and Town Planning,” Ann. Amer. Acad., LI (January, 1914), 1–264.

An excellent collection of authoritative articles on housing, city planning, city land values, transportation, and government. (III, 6; IV, 1, 2, 3; V; VII; VIII.)

Hull House Maps and Papers (New York, 1895).

A presentation of nationalities and wages in a congested district of Chicago together with comments and essays on problems growing out of the social conditions. (VII, 2, 3, 4, 5; IX, 3.)

Hunter, Robert. Tenement Conditions in Chicago: Report by the Investigating Committee of the City Homes Association (Chicago, 1901). (VII, 5.)

Hurd, Richard M. Principles of City Land Values (New York, 1924).

Land valuation on the basis of city growth. Shows that the coming of the automobile, making available large tracts for residential purposes, the radio, and other devices for intercommunication have not materially changed the general principles of city growth. Contains maps and photographs showing foot-front values for various cities and land utilization. (VII, 1, 4; VI, 2.)

Morehouse, E. W., and Ely, R. T. Elements of Land Economics (New York, 1924).

An introduction to land valuation. Chapter vi, on urban land utilization. (VII, 1, 2; X, 2.)

McMichael, Stanley L., and Bingham, Robert F. City Growth and Values (Cleveland, 1923).

An authoritative statement. (VII, 1.)

Olcott, George C. Olcott’s Land Value Maps (annually, Chicago, 1909–25).

Valuations of Chicago real estate.

Pratt, Edward Ewing. Industrial Causes of Congestion of Population in New York City (New York, 1911).

Contains an excellent bibliography. (III, 4; V, 1, 2, 4, 5; VI, 2, 3; VII, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.)

Reeve, Sidney A. “Congestion in Cities,” Geog. Rev., III (1917), 278–93.

Regards congestion as a growing menace to public health and social stability, and analyzes the causes and suggests remedies. (V, 4, 5; VI; VII, 1, 2, 5; VIII 1.)

Riis, Jacob A. How the Other Half Lives: Studies among the Tenements of New York (New York, 1890 and 1914).

This together with his other book, The Battle with the Slum (New York, 1892), has done much to call public attention to the tenement problem of the large American city and to invite remedial legislation. (V, 1, 2, 4, 5; VII, 1, 2, 5.)

Schumacher, F. “Probleme der Grossstadt,” Deutsche Rundschau für Geog., CXXC (July 5, 1919), 66–81, 262–85, 416–29. (V; VI; VII; VIII.)

Smythe, William Ellsworth. City Homes on Country Lanes: Philosophy and Practice of the Home-in-a-Garden (New York, 1921). (V, 5.)

Stella, A. “The Effects of Urban Congestion on Italian Women and Children,” Medical Record, LXXIII (New York, 1908), 722–32. (V, 1, 3; VIII, 1.)

Südekum, Albert. Grossstädtisches Wohnungselend, Vol. XLV in “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905).

A description of a typical tenement area in the European city and its effects on human behavior. (VII, 5; IX, 3.)

Veiller, Lawrence. “The Housing Problem in America,” Ann. Amer. Academy, XXV (1905), 248–75.

In this article, as well as in his later works (for instance, Housing Reform (New York, 1910)), the writer, who has been regarded as one of the foremost housing students in America, outlines some of the social consequences of bad housing in the modern city and questions the adequacy of democratic form of government in the slum areas. (V; IX, 3.)

VII. THE GROWTH OF THE CITY

The growth of the city has been described as the outstanding characteristic of modern civilization. The sociologist is interested in the processes underlying this phenomenon.

1. One of the most obvious phases of this growth is the addition in numbers and the expansion in area of the city. This has been accurately measured by the statisticians and geographers. The typical process of expansion is from the core of the city outward toward the periphery. While ample materials for such studies of processes exist, their interpretation and analysis is yet to be undertaken. In the process of growth the city tends to become empty, as concerns habitations, at the center. This phenomenon is referred to as “city-building.”

Ballard, W. J. “Our Twenty-nine Largest Cities, Jour. Educ., XXCIII (April 27, 1916), 468.

Bassett, E. M. “Distribution of Population in Cities,” American City, XIII (July, 1915), 7–8.

Bernhard, H. “Die Entvölkerung des Landes,” Deutsche Rundschau für Geog., XXXVII (1914–15), 563–67.

Of twenty-one countries examined, all showed an increase in urban population between 1880–1910, in most cases far exceeding the natural increase in population, and a decrease in percentage of rural population. (VII, 3; VIII, 1; X, 2.)

Brown, Robert M. “City Growth and City Advertising” (Abstract of paper read at 1921 Conference of American Geographers), Ann. Assoc. Amer. Geog., XII (1922), 155.

A discussion of the causes of growth of American cities with an analysis of the one hundred cities showing the largest gains since 1910. Classification as to type of advertising campaigns used.

Bushee, F. A. “The Growth of Population of Boston,” Pub. Amer. Statistical Assoc., VI (1899), 239–74. (VIII, 3.)

City-Building: A Citation of Methods in Use in More Than One Hundred Cities for the Solution of Important Problems in the Progressive Growth of the American Municipality (Cincinnati, 1913). (V, 4, 5; VI; VII, 5.)

“City Growth by Dead Reckoning,” Literary Digest, XXCII (August 9, 1924), 12.

Fawcett, C. B. “British Conurbations in 1921,” Sociol. Rev., XIV (April, 1922), 111–22.

Feather, W. A. “Cities That Make Good,” Forum, LVII (May, 1917), 623–28.

Gregory, W. M. “Growth of the Cities of Washington,” Jour. Geog., XIV (May, 1916), 348–53. (VII, 3.)

“How Big Should a City Be?” Literary Digest, LI (August 28, 1915), 399–400.

James, Edmund J. “The Growth of Great Cities,” Ann. Amer. Academy, XIII (1899), 1–30. (VII, 2, 3.)

Traces the growth of the cities and the genesis of the problems connected with it.

Jefferson, Mark. “Great Cities of the United States in 1920,” Geog. Rev., XI (July, 1921), 437–41.

Martell, P. “Die Bevölkerungsentwicklung der Stadt Berlin,” Allgemeines Statistisches Archiv, X (1917), 207–15. (VII, 3; VIII, 1.)

Püschel, Alfred. Das Anwachsen der Deutschen Städte in der Zeit der mittelalterlichen Kolonialbewegung (Berlin, 1910).

Contains fifteen city plans. Traces the growth of cities in the medieval period and the changes in city structure. (II, 2; VII, 2.)

Ridgley, D. C. “Sixty-eight Cities of the United States in 1920,” Jour. Geog., XX (February, 1921), 75–79.

One of a series of postcensus-report analyses of the growth of the urban population.

Roth, Lawrence V. “The Growth of American Cities,” Geog. Rev., V (May, 1918), 384–98.

Holds that the growth of the cities of the United States has passed through four periods, each of which in its turn was the response to the commercial and industrial development of a new geographical region. Distinguishes between site and situation in city growth, and is here concerned mainly with general situation as a contributory influence. (III, 2, 3, 4.)

Sedlaczek. “Die Bevölkerungszunahme der Grossstädte im XIX Jahrhundert und deren Ursachen,” Report of the Eighth International Congress of Hygiene and Demography (Budapest, 1894). (VII, 3; VIII, 1; X, 1.)

United States Bureau of the Census. A Century of Population Growth (Washington, 1909). (VII, 3; VIII; X, 2.)

United States Bureau of the Census. Population: Fourteenth Census of the United States (3 vols.; Washington, 1920). (VII, 3; VIII, 1, 2; IX, 1; X, 2.)

Van Cleef, E. “How Big Is Your Town?” American City, XVII (November, 1917), 471–73.

Weber, Adna Ferrin. The Growth of Cities in the Nineteenth Century: A Study in Statistics, “Columbia University Studies in History, Economics, and Public Law” (New York, 1899).

Besides being the most important book on the growth of the city from a statistical standpoint, it contains many other features of great value to the student of the city, especially of the influence of the urban environment on the population. (VII, 2, 3; VIII.)

“Why Cities Grow,” Literary Digest, LVIII (August 17, 1918), 22–23.

Zahn, F. “Die Volkszählung von 1900 und die Grossstadtfrage,” Jahrbuch für Nationalökonomie und Statistik, XXCI (1903), 191–215. (VII, 3.)

2. Every addition in numbers and expansion of the city area is accompanied by the redistribution and re-allocation of the whole population. Some elements are given a new locus, while others shift but little as a result of the stimulus incident to the arrival of newcomers. This redistribution of the city population has become a constantly operating process in view of the constant growth of the city either through natural increase of the population or through migration from without.

Allison, Thomas W. “Population Movements in Chicago,” Jour. of Social Forces, II (May, 1924), 529–33. (V, 1, 3; VII, 4.)

Aurousseau, M. “Distribution of Population: A Constructive Problem,” Geog. Rev., XI (October, 1921), 568–75.

“Density concerns itself with the number of people per unit of area; distribution deals with the comparative study of density from area to area; and arrangement considers the way in which people are grouped. Grouping is the fundamental concept....” (I, 1; IV, 1; X, 2.)

Bushee, F. A. “Ethnic Factors in the Population of Boston,” Pub. Amer. Statistical Assoc., Vol. IV, No. 2, pp. 307–477. (V, 1, 2, 3.)

Douglas, H. Paul. The Suburban Trend (New York, 1925).

Traces the movement toward decentralization in the larger American urban communities. (VII, 2, 1, 4; IV, 2; III, 5; V, 4.)

Hirschfeld, Magnus. Berlins drittes Geschlecht, Vol. III in “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905).

A study of the homosexuals in Berlin as a sample of the grouping of population in the large city. (V, 1, 3; VII, 5.)

Hooker, G. E. “City-Planning and Political Areas,” Nat. Mun. Rev., VI (May, 1917), 337–45. (IV, 3; V, 1, 4, 5; VI, 7.)

The London Society. The London of the Future (New York and London, 1921).

An excellent view of the processes bringing about the allocation of the population and the trend of growth of the city from the core pressing outward toward the periphery. (II, 3; III, 1, 5, 6; IV; V; VI; VII; VIII, 1, 2, 3; IX, 1, 2, 3, 4.)

Ripley, W. Z. “Racial Geography of Europe,” Popular Science Monthly, LII (1898), 591–608; XIV, “Urban Problems.” See also his “Races of Europe,” chap. xx, on “Ethnic Stratification and Urban Selection.” (V, 3.)

Salten, Felix. Wiener Adel, Vol. XIV in “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905).

Shows the local grouping of the nobility in the large European city. (IX, 4.)

Schmid, Herman. City bildung und Bevölkerungsverteilung in Grossstädten: Ein Beitrag zur Entwicklungsgeschichte des modernen Städtewesens (München, 1909).

Shows that the normal process of growth of the city is by emptying at the center, and redistributing its population around the periphery. (Compare Mark Jefferson, “The Anthropography of Some Great Cities: A Study in Distribution of Population,” Bull. Amer. Geog. Soc., XLI (1909), 537–66. (VII, 4, 5.))

Williams, James M. An American Town: A Sociological Study (New York, 1906).

Primarily an analysis of an American community from a socio-psychological standpoint. Contains some interesting facts on growth and distribution of population. (III, 5; V, 1, 2, 3; IX, 1, 3.)

Winter, Max. Im unterirdischen Wien, Vol. XIII in “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905).

A description of Vienna, showing the processes of segregation, allocation, and communication at work in the city population. (V, 1; VI, 4, 6; VII, 5; IX, 3, 4.)

3. During the latter part of the nineteenth century the expressions, “the flight from the country,” and “the drift to the city” began to be heard. The rapid increase in population of the cities was found to be due not to natural increase, i.e., excess of births over deaths, but to migration from the surrounding rural area. In America the rapid increase in the size of the cities was due chiefly to an increasing stream of European immigrants who avoided the farm but were attracted to the urban environment. Population statisticians have been alert to discover whether this process is continuing or whether a change is taking place. Improvements in rural life and conscious efforts to control the movement of population have been observed as to their possible effect on the rural-urban population equilibrium.

Ashby, A. W. “Population and the Land,” Edinburgh Rev., CCXXIV (1916), 321–39. (X, 1, 2.)

Ballod, C. “Sterblichkeit und Fortpflanzung der Stadtbevölkerung,” Jahrbuch für Nationalökonomie und Statistik, XXXIII (1909), 521–41. (VIII, 1, 3.)

Bauer, L. Der Zug nach der Stadt (Stuttgart, 1904). Reviewed in Archiv f. Rassen u. Gesellschaftsbiologie, II, 300. (VII, 1.)

Beusch, P. Wanderungen und Stadtkultur: eine bevolkerungspolitische und sozialethische Studie (München-Gladbach, 1916).

Böckh, R. “Der Anteil der örtlichen Bewegung an der Zunahme der Bevölkerung der Grossstädte,” Congress Intern. d’Hygiène et de Démographie (Budapest, 1894). (VII, 1.)

Bowley, A. L. “Births and Population in Great Britain,” Econ. Jour., XXXIV (June, 1924), 188–92. (VII, 1; VIII, 1.)

Bryce, P. H. “Effects upon Public Health and Natural Prosperity from Rural Depopulation and Abnormal Increase of Cities,” Amer. Jour. Public Health, New York, V, 48–56. (VIII; X, 1, 2.)

Cacheux, E. “Influence des grandes villes sur la dépopulation,” Rev. Philanthrop. Paris, XXXVII (1916), 513–18. (VIII; X, 1.)

Dickerman, G. S. “The Drift to the Cities,” Atlantic Monthly, CXI (1913), 349–53. (IX, 2; X, 1, 2.)

Dittmann, P. Die Bevölkerungsbewegung der deutschen Grossstädte seit der Gründung des deutschen Reiches (Bamberg, 1912). (VII, 1.)

Groves, E. R. “Urban Complex: A Study of the Psychological Aspects of the Urban Drift,” Sociol. Rev., XII (1920), 73–81. (IX, 2; X, 2.)

Hecke, W. “Volksvermehrung, Binnenwanderung, und Umgangssprache in den österreichischen Alpenländern und Südländern,” Statist. Monatsschr., XXXIX (1913), 323–92. (VIII, 1. 3; X, 2.)

Hoaglund, H. E. “The Movement of Rural Population in Illinois,” Jour. Pol. Econ., XX (1912), 913–27.

Mayr, G. von. Die Bevölkerung der Grossstädte, in “Die Grossstadt” (Dresden, 1903).

One of the best statements of the problem. (VII, 1, 2; VIII, 1, 2, 3.)

Prinzing, Dr. F. “Die Bevölkerungsentwicklung Stockholms, 1721–1920,” Jahrbuch für Nationalökonomie und Statistik, XLVII (1924), 87–93.

An excellent case study of the situation in a modern European city. (VII, 1; X, 1, 2.)

——. “Einheimische und Zugezogene in den Grossstädten,” Zeitschr. für Sozialwiss., VII (Berlin, 1904), 660–67.

Ravenstein, E. G. “The Laws of Migration,” Jour. Royal Statist. Soc., XLVIII (1885), 167–227. (X, 2.)

Spencer, A. G. “Changing Population of Our Large Cities,” Kindergarten Primary Mag., XXIII (1910), 65–71.

Steinhart, A. Untersuchung zur Gebürtigkeit der deutschen Grossstadtbevölkerung, Entwicklung, und Ursachen, “Rechts und Staatswissenschaftliche Studien,” Heft 45 (Berlin, 1912). (VIII, 1; X, 2.)

Voss, W. “Städtische Kleinsiedlung,” Archiv für exacte Wirtschaftsforschung, IX (1919), 377–412.

Weisstein, G. “Sind die Städte wirklich Menschenverzehrer?” Deutsche Städte Ztg. (1905), pp. 153–54.

4. The mobility of a city population incident to city growth is reflected in the increased number of contacts, changes of movement, changes in appearance, and atmosphere of specific areas due to succession of population groups, and in differences in land values. Mobility implies not mere movement, but fresh stimulation, an increase in number and intensity of stimulants, and a tendency to respond more readily to new stimulation. The process by which the city absorbs and incorporates its own offspring or foreign elements into its life, and what becomes of them, may be referred to as the metabolism of city life. Mobility is an index of metabolism.

Bercovici, Konrad. Around the World in New York (New York, 1924).

Discusses the local communities and the sifting process in the large city. (VII, 1, 2; IX, 3; V, 1, 2, 3.)

Digby, E. “The Extinction of the Londoner,” Contemp. Rev., London, XXCVI (1904), 115–26. (VII, 2, 3; VIII, 1; IX, 2, 3.)

Herzfeld, Elsa G. Family Monographs; The History of Twenty-four Families Living in the Middle West Side of New York City (New York, 1905).

Examples of extreme mobility (tendency to migrate) in the tenement district. (VII, 5.)

Meuriot, P. “Les Migrations internes dans quelques grandes villes,” Jour. Soc. Stat., Paris, L (1909), 390. (V, 1; VII, 2.)

Prinzing, F. “Die Bevölkerungsbewegung in Paris und Berlin,” Zeitschr. für Soziale Medizin, Leipzig, III (1908), 99–120.

Stephany, H. “Der Einfluss des Berufes und der Sozialstellung auf die Bevölkerungsbewegung der Grossstädte nachgewiesen an Königsberg i. Pr.,” Königsb. Statist., No. 13, 1912. (VII, 2, 3.)

Weleminsky, F. “Über Akklimatisation in Grossstädten,” Archiv für Hygiene, XXXVI (1899), 66–126. (VII, 3, 5; VIII, 1.)

Woods, Robert A. Americans in Process: A Settlement Study, North- and West-End Boston (Boston, 1902). (VII, 2; V, 3; IX, 3.)

Typical of a number of settlement studies giving a view of the effect of the city on its foreign population.

5. City growth may be thought of as a process of disorganization and reorganization. Growth always involves these processes to some extent, but when the city grows rapidly we see the disorganization assuming proportions which may be regarded as pathological. Crime, suicide, divorce, are some of the behavior problems in which social disorganization, when viewed from the personal side, expresses itself. The disappearance of the neighborhood and the local community with its personal forms of control is one of the immediate causal elements in this process.

Addams, Jane. The Spirit of Youth and the City Streets (New York, 1909). (V, 1, 2, 3; IX, 3; X, 2.)

Bader, Emil. Wiener Verbrecher, Vol. XVI, “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905). (VI, 4; VII, 5; IX, 4.)

Bonne, G. “Über die Notwendigkeit einer systematischen Dezentralisation unserer Grossstädte in hygienischer, sozialer, und volkswirtschaftlicher Beziehung,” Monatschr. für soz. Med., I (Jena, 1904), 369, 425, 490. (V, 5; VIII.)

Buschan, G. H. Geschlecht und Verbrechen, Vol. XLVIII, “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905).

Some observations on the natural history of the city population. Very fragmentary. (VIII, 2; IX, 3, 4.)

Chalmers, Thomas. The Christian and Civic Economy of Large Towns (Glasgow, 1918). (IV, 5; VII; VIII, 1, 4.)

Classen, W. F. Grossstadt Heimat: Beobachtungen zur Naturgeschichte des Grossstadtvolkes (Hamburg, 1906).

Classen, W. Das stadtegeborene Geschlecht und seine Zukunft (Leipzig, 1914).

Henderson, C. R. “Industry and City Life and the Family,” Amer. Jour. Sociol., XIV, 668. (VIII, 1, 2, 3.)

Lasson, Alfred. Gefährdete und verwahrloste Jugend, Vol. XLIX, “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905).

The dangers confronting youth in the city and juvenile delinquency. (IX, 4.)

Marcuse, Max. Uneheliche Mütter, Vol. XXVII in “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905). (VIII, 1, 3; IX, 3.)

Illegitimacy in Berlin. Types of unmarried mothers.

Ostwald, H. O. A. Das Berliner Spielertum, Vol. XXXV in “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905). (VI, 6; IX, 4.)

Gambling in the city.

——. Zuhältertum in Berlin, Vol. V, “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905). Panderers and their victims in the city. (IX, 1, 4.)

Schuchard, Ernst. Sechs Monate Arbeitshaus, Vol. XXXIII in “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905).

Six months’ experiences in the workhouse of the city, where the opportunity to observe social disorganization is great. (VI, 4; IX, 3, 4.)

Sears, Charles H. The Redemption of the City (Philadelphia, 1911).

Sharp, Geo. W. City Life and Its Amelioration (Boston, 1915).

Steiner, Jesse F. “Theories of Community Organization,” Jour. Social Forces, III (November, 1924), 30–37. (V; VIII, 3.)

——. “A Critique of the Community Movement,” Jour. App. Sociol., IX (November-December, 1924), 108.

Problems of social control in relation to community organization and disorganization. (V; VIII, 3.)

Stelze, Charles. Christianity’s Storm Center: A Study of the Modern City (New York and Chicago, 1907).

Strong, Josiah. The Challenge of the City (New York, 1907).

From a religious and moral standpoint. (X, 1, 2.)

Thomas, W. I., and Znaniecki, Florian. The Polish Peasant in Europe and America, Vol. V, “Organization and Disorganization in America” (Boston, 1920). (V, 3; VII, 2.)

“The Tragedy of Great Cities,” Outlook, CXXVI (1920), 749–50.

Werthauer, Johannes. Sittlichkeitsdelikte der Grossstadt, Vol. XL in “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905).

A collection of typical city delinquencies of the sex type. (V, 4; IX, 4.)

VIII. EUGENICS OF THE CITY

Considerable literature has grown up recently dealing with the biological aspects of city life. Detailed studies as to the effect of city life on the human stock remain to be made. On the basis of the material now available, however, fruitful avenues of research are opened, and certain tentative conclusions may be entertained.

1. The changes incident to city life in the birth, death, and marriage rates of the population are noticeable on the basis of statistics. These phenomena permit of sociological interpretation and analysis. The difference between the urban and the rural span of life offers a similar problem to the investigator. The proportions of the human scrap-heap and its social consequences in the city have been recognized as an important phase of urban existence.

Bailey, W. B. Modern Social Conditions: A Statistical Study of Birth, Marriage, Divorce, Death, Disease, Suicide, Immigration, etc., with Special Reference to the United States (New York, 1906). (VII, 5; VIII.)

Bajla, E. “Come si distribuiscono topograficamente le malattee contagiose negli aggregati urbani,” Attualita Med. Milano, V (1916), 542–46.

The local distribution of contagious diseases in the urban area.

Barron, S. B. “Town life as a Cause of Degeneracy,” Pop. Sci. Mo., XXXIV (1888–89), 324–30. (X, 2.)

Billings, J. S. “The Mortality Rates of Baltimore; Life Table for Baltimore; Mortality in Different Wards; Causes of Disease,” Baltimore Med. Jour., X (1883–84), 487–89. (V, 1.)

“Biological Influences of City Life,” Literary Digest, LII (February, 1916), 371–72.

“Birth- and Death-Rates in American Cities,” Amer. City, XVI (1917), 195–99.

Bleicher, H. “Über die Eigentümlichkeiten der städtischen Natalitäts- und Mortalitätsverhältnisse,” Intern. Kongr. für Hygiene und Demographie (Budapest, 1894). (VIII, 3.)

The peculiarities of urban birth and death rates.

Dublin, Louis I. “The Significance of the Declining Birth-Rate,” Science, (new series), XLVII, 201–10.

Fehlinger, Hans. “De l’influence biologique de la civilization urbaine,” Scientia, X (1911), 421–34. (VIII, 3.)

Guilfoy, W. H. The Influence of Nationality upon the Mortality of a Community, with Special Reference to the City of New York, “Department of Health of New York City Monograph Series 18,” 1919. (V, 1, 2, 3.)

——. An Analysis of the Mortality Returns of the Sanitary Areas of the Borough of Manhattan for the Year 1915, “Department of Health of New York City Monograph Series 15,” 1916.

Hammond, L. J., and Gray, C. H. “The Relation of the Foreign Population to the Mortality and Morbidity Rate of Philadelphia,” Bull. Amer. Acad. of Med., XIV (1913), 113–29. (V, 1.)

Harmon, G. E. “A Comparison of the Relative Healthfulness of Certain Cities in the United States, Based upon the Study of Their Vital Statistics,” Publ. Amer. Statist. Assoc., XV (Boston, 1916), 157–74.

Holmes, Samuel J. A Bibliography of Eugenics, “University of California Publications in Zoölogy,” Vol. XXV, Berkeley, California, 1924.

Contains a chapter on “Urban Selection and the Influence of Industrial Development on Racial Heredity.” Has served as a source of many references listed in this bibliography. (VIII.)

Love, A. G., and Davenport, C. B. “Immunity of City-Bred Recruits,” Arch. Med. Intern., XXIV (1919), 129–53.

Macpherson, J. “Urban Selection and Mental Health,” Rev. of Neurol. and Psychiatry, I (1903), 65–73. (VII, 2, 5; IX, 2, 3, 4; X, 3.)

Meinshausen: “Die Zunahme der Körpergrösse des deutschen Volkes vor dem Kriege; ihre Ursachen und Bedeutung für die Wiederherstellung der deutschen Volkskraft,” Archiv für Hygiene und Demographie, XIV (1921), 28–72.

Points out degeneration of urban youth. (VII, 3; X, 3.)

Pieper, E. “Über die Verbreitung der Geschlechtskrankheiten nach Stadt und Land mit besonderer Berücksichtigung der Verhältnisse der Stadt Rostock und des Staates Mecklenburg,” Arch. für Soz. Hygiene und Demographie, XIV (1923), 148–87. (X, 2.)

Sarker, S. L. “The Comparative Mortality of the Towns of the Nadia District,” Indian Med. Gaz., LII (Calcutta, 1917), 58–60.

Walford, C. “On the Number of Violent Deaths from Accident, Negligence, Violence, and Misadventure in the United Kingdom and Some Other Countries,” Jour. Royal Stat. Soc., XLIV (1881), 444–521.

Number of violent deaths in cities greater than rural region. (X, 2.)

Weber, L. W. “Grossstadt und Nerven,” Deutsche Rundschau, CLXXVII (December, 1918), 391–407. (IX, 2, 4.)

Weiberg, W. “Zur Frage nach der Häufigkeit der Syphilis in der Grossstadt,” Arch. Rass. und Gesellsch. Biol., Vol. XI, 1914; 3 articles.

Whipple, G. C. Vital Statistics: An Introduction to Demography (New York, 1923). (VII, 1; VIII, 2, 3; IX, 2.)

2. The relative differences in the age and sex groups, in the city as over against the country, and in the various areas in the city are indicative of fundamental processes tending to produce typical results.

Baker, J. E. “City Life and Male Mortality,” Publ. Amer. Statist. Assoc., XI (1908), 133–49. (VIII, 1.)

Böckh, R. “Sterbetafeln C (für Grossstädte); Die fünfzig Berliner Sterbetafeln,” Bericht über 14ten Intern. Kongr. Hygiene, III (Berlin, 1908), 1078–87. (V, 1, 2, 3, 4; VIII, 1.)

Heron, David. On the Relation of Fertility in Man to Social Status and on the Changes in This Relation That Have Taken Place during the Last Fifty Years (London, 1906). (VII, 1, 5; VIII, 1.)

Röse, C. “Die Grossstadt als Grab der Bevölkerung,” Aerztliche Rundschau, XV (München, 1905), 257–61. (VII, 3; VIII, 1.)

3. Whether the conditions of city life have an influence on the fecundity of women and the size of the family is an aspect of city life inviting accurate study, attempts at which have already been made.

Haurbeck, L. “Der Wille zur Mutterschaft in Stadt und Land,” Deutsche Landwirtsch. Presse., XI (1915), 12. (VIII, 1, 2; X, 2.)

Kühner, F. “Stadt und Bevölkerungspolitik,” Städte-Zeit, XIV (1917), 306.

Lewis, C. F., and J. N. Natality and Fecundity: A Contribution to National Demography (Edinburgh, 1906).

Based on statistics in the Scottish birth register of 1855. (VIII, 1, 2.)

Manschke, R. “Innere Einflüsse der Bevölkerungswanderungen auf die Geburtenzahl,” Zeitschr. für Sozialwiss., neue Folge, VII (1916), 100–115, 161–74. (VII, 3; VIII, 1, 2; X, 2.)

Morgan, J. E. The Danger of Deterioration of Race from the Too Rapid Increase of Great Cities (London, 1866). (VII, 1, 3; VIII, 1.)

Prinzing, F. “Eheliche und uneheliche Fruchtbarkeit und Aufwuchsziffer in Stadt und Land in Preussen,” Deutsche Med. Wochenschrift, XLIV (1918), 351–54. (VIII, 1; X, 4.)

Theilhaber, F. A. Das sterile Berlin (Berlin, 1913). (VIII, 1, 2.)

Thompson, Warren S. “Race Suicide in the United States,” Sci. Mo., V, 22–35, 154–65, 258–69. (VIII, 1; X, 2.)

“Urban Sterilization,” Jour. Hered., VIII (1917), 268–69. (VIII, 1.)

IX. HUMAN NATURE AND CITY LIFE

The city is remaking human nature and each city is producing its own type of personality. These influences of city life are of prime interest to the sociologist. The materials bearing on this question are not primarily those collected by the scientist, but by the artist. It requires insight and imagination to perceive and to describe these deep-seated changes which are being wrought in the nature of man himself.

1. The division of labor and the fine specialization of occupations and professions that is so distinctly characteristic of city life has brought into existence a new mode of thought and new habits and attitudes which have transformed man in a few generations. The city man tends to think less in terms of locality than he does in terms of occupation. In a sense he has become an adjunct of the machine which he operates and the tools he uses. His interests are organized around his occupation, and his status and mode of life is determined by it.

Bahre, Walter. Meine Klienten. Vol. XLII in “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905).

Specialization and professional types and classes as seen from a lawyer’s office. (IX, 4.)

Benario, Leo. Die Wucherer und ihre Opfer, Vol. XXXVIII in “Grossstadt Dokumente.” (IX, 3, 4.)

The profession of money-lending in the large city and the behavior patterns that this professional group exhibits. (IX, 3, 4.)

Burke, Thomas. The London Spy: A Book of Town Travels (New York, 1922). (II, 3; V, 1, 2, 3; IX.)

Donovan, Frances. The Woman Who Waits (Boston, 1920).

The impressions and occupational experiences of a waitress in Chicago. (IX, 2, 3.)

Hammond, J. L., and Barbara. The Skilled Labourer, 1760–1832 (London, 1919).

The emergence of occupational types in the course of industrial evolution. (III, 4; IV, 6.)

Hammond, J. L., and Barbara. The Town Labourer, 1760–1832: The New Civilization (London, 1917). (II, 3; III, 4; IV, 6; IX, 2, 3; X, 2.)

Hyan, Hans. Schwere Jungen, Vol. XXVIII in “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905).

Describes the life of an occupational group—the pugilists—in the large city (Berlin). (V, 1, 3; VI, 6; IX, 4.)

Mayhew, Henry. London Labour and London Poor: A Cyclopaedia of the Condition and Earnings of Those That Will Work, Those That Cannot Work, and Those That Will Not Work (London, 1861–62), 4 vols.

A description of occupational types created by city specialization. (II, 3; VII, 5; IX, 4.)

Noack, Victor. Was ein Berliner Musikant erlebte, Vol. XIX in “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905).

The experiences of a Berlin musician in his occupational life. Showing the evolution of an occupational type, with many highly specialized subtypes. (IX; X, 2.)

Roe, Clifford. Panders and Their White Slaves (New York and Chicago, 1910). (V, 1; VII, 5.)

Rowntree, B. Seebohm, and Lasker, Bruno. Unemployment: A Social Study (London, 1911).

Simkhovitch, Mary K. The City Worker’s World in America (New York, 1917). (V, 1, 2, 3; VI, 10; VII, 2, 5.)

Solenberger, Alice W. One Thousand Homeless Men: A Study of Original Records (New York, 1914).

What a social agency’s records reveal about occupational careers in the city. (VI, 4; VII, 4, 5; VIII, 1.)

Veblen, Thorstein. The Instinct of Workmanship, and the State of the Industrial Arts (New York, 1914).

Showing the development of the specialization of labor and its effect on human behavior. (IX, 2.)

Werthauer, Johannes. Berliner Schwindel, Vol. XXI in “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905).

Showing the extent to which fraud has become a technical profession. (VII, 5; IX, 2, 4.)

Weidner, Albert. Aus den Tiefen der Berliner Arbeiterbewegung, Vol. IX, in “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905).

The significance of the labor movement in the large city. (V, 1, 4; VII, 5; IX, 2, 3, 4.)

2. There is a city mentality which is clearly differentiated from the rural mind. The city man thinks in mechanistic terms, in rational terms, while the rustic thinks in naturalistic, magical terms. Not only does this difference exist between city and country, it exists also between city and city, and between one area of the city and another. Each city and each part of the city furnishes a distinct social world to its inhabitants, which they incorporate in their personality whether they will or no.

Carleton, Will. City Ballads, City Festivals, and City Legends (London, 1907). (X, 2.)

Grant, James. Lights and Shadows of London Life (London, 1842).

Giving a view of the picturesque aspects of the modern city.

——. The Great Metropolis (London, 1836). (III, 5; IV, 6; V, 3; IX.)

Marpillero, G. “Saggio di psicologia dell’urbanismo,” Revista Italiana di Sociologia, XII (1908), 599–626.

Morgan, Anna. My Chicago (Chicago, 1918).

A city from the standpoint of the social aristocracy. (V, 3.)

Seiler, C. Linn. City Values. “An Analysis of the Social Status and Possibilities of American City Life” (University of Pennsylvania, Ph.D. Thesis, 1912).

Simmel, G. Die Grossstädte und das Geistesleben, in “Die Grossstadt” (Dresden, 1903).

The most important single article on the city from the sociological standpoint.

Sombart, Werner. The Jews and Modern Capitalism, translated from the German by M. Epstein (London and New York, 1913).

The best study of a city people and the influence of city life on their mentality. (IX, 1, 4; X, 3.)

Spengler, Oswald. Der Untergang des Abendlandes: Umrisse einer Morphologie der Weltgeschichte, Vol. II (München, 1922), chap. II, “Städte und Völker,” pp. 100–224. (II; VII, 1, 5; IX, 1.)

Winter, Max. Das Goldene Wiener Herz, Vol. XI in “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905).

A study of the financial nexus in city life. (IX, 4.)

Woolston, H. “The Urban Habit of Mind,” Amer. Jour. Sociol., XVII, 602 ff.

3. The medium through which man is influenced and modified in the city is the intricate system of communication. The urban system of communication takes on a special form. It is not typically the primary, but the secondary, contact that it produces. The public opinion that is built up in the city and the morale and ésprit de corps growing out of it relies on such typical media as the newspaper rather than the gossip monger; the telephone and the mails rather than the town meeting. The characteristic urban social unit is the occupational group rather than the geographical area.

Chicago Commission on Race Relations. The Negro in Chicago (Chicago, 1922).

A study growing out of the Chicago race riots, showing the growth of public opinion and the behavior of crowds and mobs in the city. (V, 1, 3; VII, 2.)

Follett, Mary P. The New State: Group Organization the Solution of Popular Government (New York, 1918).

Analyzes the conditions under which public opinion of today is formed and suggests local organization as a possible way out. (V, 3; VII, 5; IX, 1.)

Howe, Frederic C. “The City as a Socializing Agency,” Amer. Jour. Sociol., XVII, 509 ff. (VII, 5.)

——. The City: The Hope of Democracy (New York, 1905).

Has chapters on the new city civilization, the causes of political corruption, and gives a general description of city life, showing in particular the problems of public opinion it creates. (V; VI; VII, 1, 2.)

Park, Robert E. “The Immigrant Community and the Immigrant Press,” American Review, III (March-April, 1925), 143–52. (V, 3.)

Triton (pseudonym). Der Hamburger “Junge Mann,” Vol. XXXIX in “Grossstadt Dokumente.”

Shows the effect of the city and the contacts it makes possible on the development of an ésprit de corps and a type. In this case the young office clerks of Hamburg are shown to be a product of the international character of the port of Hamburg. (IV, 6; IX, 1, 2, 4.)

4. The final product of the city environment is found in the new types of personality which it engenders. Here the latent energies and capacities of individuals find expression and locate themselves within the range of a favorable milieu. This possibility of segregating one’s self from the crowd develops and accentuates what there is of individuality in the human personality. The city gives an opportunity to men to practice their specialty vocationally and develop it to the utmost degree. It provides also the stimulus and the conditions which tend to bring out those temperamental and psychological qualities within the individual through the multiple behavior patterns which it tolerates.

Hammer, Wilhelm. Zehn Lebenslaufe Berliner Kontrollmädchen, Vol. XVIII in “Grossstadt Dokumente.”

The life-history of ten Berlin prostitutes with a suggested classification of types. (VI, 4; IX, 1.)

Deutsch-German, Alfred (pseudonym). Wiener Mädel, Vol. XVII in “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905).

An intimate study of the types of girls to be found in the large city. (IX, 2, 3.)

Flagg, James M. City People. A Book of Illustrations (New York, 1909).

Freimark, Hans. Moderne Geistesbeschwörer und Wahrheitssucher, Vol. XXXVI in “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905).

Fortune-tellers and persons in the “occult fields” in the modern city. A study of magical vestiges in city mentality. (IX, 1, 2.)

Hapgood, Hutchins. Types from City Streets (New York, 1910).

——. The Spirit of the Ghetto (New York and London, 1909).

An intimate study of life in the New York Jewish quarter with a graphic presentation of personality types. (V, 2.)

Hecht, Ben. A Thousand and One Afternoons in Chicago (Chicago, 1922).

Journalistic sketches of Chicago scenes, experiences, and types. (V, 3; IX.)

Mackenzie, C. “City People,” McClure’s, XLVII (August, 1916), 22.

Markey, Gene. Men About Town: A Book of Fifty-eight Caricatures (Chicago, 1924).

Mensch, Ella (pseudonym). Bilderstürmer in der Berliner Frauenbewegung.

Types found in the feminist movement of Berlin. (IX, 2, 3.)

X. THE CITY AND THE COUNTRY

The city and the country represent two opposite poles in modern civilization. The difference between the two is not merely one of degree, but of kind. Each has its own peculiar type of interests, of social organization, and of humanity. These two worlds are in part antagonistic and in part complementary to each other. The one influences the life of the other, but they are by no means equally matched. The analysis of these differences, antagonisms, and interacting forces has not passed even the descriptive stage.

1. The ancient city was regarded as a parasitic growth. It dominated the country by skill and by force, but contributed little to its welfare. The modern city, too, is often regarded as a superfluous burden which the rural sections are carrying. This view of the matter is fast passing away, however, as the city extends its influence, not by force, but by fulfilling a set of functions upon which the rural population has become dependent. The economists have been especially concerned with the antagonistic interests which the city and the country have presented. These antagonisms have come to play a political rôle which influences local, national, and international affairs.

Bookwalter, J. W. Rural Versus Urban; Their Conflict and Its Causes: A Study of the Conditions Affecting Their Natural and Artificial Relation (New York, 1911). (X, 2.)

Damaschke, Adolf. Die Bodenreform: Grundsätzliches und Geschichtliches zur Erkenntnis der sozialen Not (19th ed.; Jena, 1922). (VI, 10.)

Reibmayr, A. “Die wichtigsten biologischen Ursachen der heutigen Landflucht,” Arch. für Rass. und Gesellsch. Biol., VII (1911), 349–76.

Decrease in rural population of Germany. Shows also unfavorable effects of alcohol, venereal disease, and other factors on population of city, and the effects of the city on the country. (VII, 2, 5; VIII, 1.)

Ross, E. A. “Folk Depletion as a Cause of Rural Decline,” Publ. Amer. Sociol. Soc., XI (1917), 21–30. (VII, 3; VIII, 1, 3; X, 2.)

Roxby, P. M. Rural Depopulation in England During the Nineteenth Century and After, LXXI (1912), 174–90. (VIII, 3.)

“Rural Depopulation in Germany,” Scient. Amer. Suppl., LXVIII (1908), 243. (VII, 3.)

Smith, J. Russell. North America: Its People and Resources, Development, and the Prospects of the Continent as an Agricultural, Industrial, and Commercial Area (New York, 1925).

One of the best geographical discussions of the relation between country and city. (I, 1, 4; III, 2, 3, 4.)

Vandervelde, E. L’exode rural et le retour aux champs (Paris, 1903). (VIII, 3.)

Waltemath. “Der Kampf gegen die Landflucht und die Slawisierung des platten Landes,” Archiv für Innere Kolonisation, IX (1916–18), 12.

2. As a result of city life new forms of social organization have been developed which are foreign to the country. The family, the neighborhood, the community, the state have become transformed by city needs into new institutions with a different organization and with a different set of functions. The social processes that characterize rural life do not apply in the city. A new moral order has developed which is fast breaking down the precedents of an earlier epoch of civilization.

Bowley, A. L. “Rural Population in England and Wales: A Study of the Change of Density, Occupations, and Ages,” Jour. Royal Stat. Soc., LXXVII (1914), 597–645. (VII, 2; VIII, 2.)

Brunner, Edmund de S. Churches of Distinction in Town and Country (New York, 1923). (VI, 5.)

Busbey, L. W. “Wicked Town and Moral Country,” Unpop. Rev., X (October, 1918), 376–92. (X, 3.)

Cook, O. F. “City and Country, Effects of Human Environments on the Progress of Civilization,” Jour. Hered., XIV (1921), 253–59.

Galpin, Charles J. Rural Life (New York, 1918).

One of the best analyses of rural life available, and of great value as a basis for comparison between city life and country life. (IV, 1, 2, 5; V, 1, 2, 3; X, 1, 3.)

Gillette, J. M. Rural Sociology (New York, 1922). (IV; V, 1, 2; VI, 8; X, 1, 3.)

Groves, E. R. “Psychic Causes of Rural Migration,” Amer. Jour. Sociol., XXI (1916), 623–27. (IV, 5; VII, 3; X, 1, 3.)

Jastrow, J. “Die Städtegmeinschaft in ihren kulturellen Beziehungen,” Zeitschr. für Sozialwiss., X (1907), 42–51.

Indicates institutions to which urban life has given impetus.

Morse, H. N. The Social Survey in Town and Country Areas (New York, 1925).

Peattie, Roderick. “The Isolation of the Lower St. Lawrence Valley,” Geog. Rev., V (February, 1918), 102–18.

An excellent study of provincialism as a result of isolation. (IV, 5.)

Prinzing, F. “Die Totgeburten in Stadt und Land,” Deutsche Med. Wochenschr., XLIII (1917), 180–81.

The number of still births indicates the technique available in city and country. (VIII, 1.)

Sanderson, Dwight. The Farmer and His Community (New York, 1922). (V, 1, 2, 3.)

Smith, Arthur H. Village Life in China: A Study in Sociology (New York, Chicago, and Toronto, 1899).

The oriental village and its place in social organization.

Thurnwald, R. “Stadt and Land im Lebensprozess der Rasse,” Arch. für Rass. und Gesellsch. Biol., I (1904), 550–74, 840–84.

Contains excellent bibliography. (VII, 3; VIII, 1, 3.)

Tucker, R. S., and McCombs, C. E. “Is the Country Healthier Than the Town?” Nat. Mun. Rev., XII (June, 1923), 291–95. (VIII, 1.)

Welton, T. A. “Note on Urban and Rural Variations According to the English Census of 1911,” Jour. Royal Stat. Soc., LXXVI (1913), 304–17. (VII, 3; VIII; X, 1.)

3. The rustic and the urbanite not only show certain fundamental differences in personality, but the variations found in the city far exceed the country, and the rate at which new types are constantly being created in the city far exceeds that of the country. The rural man still is to a great extent the product of the nature which surrounds him, while the urbanite has become a part of the machine with which he works, and has developed as many different species as there are techniques to which he is devoted. The attitudes, the sentiments, the life organization of the city man are as different from the country man as those of the civilized man are from the primitive. As the city extends its influence over the country the rural man is also being remade, and ultimately the differences between the two may become extinguished.

Anthony, Joseph. “The Unsophisticated City Boy,” Century, CIX (November, 1924), 123–28. (VII, 5.)

Coudenhove-Kalergi, H. “The New Nobility,” Century, CIX (November, 1924), 3–6.

A concise analysis of the outstanding differences in the personality of the rustic and the urbanite. (IX, 1, 2, 3, 4; X, 1, 2.)

Humphrey, Z. “City People and Country Folk,” Country Life, XXXVII (January, 1920), 35–37.

McDowall, Arthur. “Townsman and the Country,” London Mercury, VIII (August, 1923), 405–13. (IV, 5; IX, 2; X, 1, 2.)

Myers, C. S. “Note on the Relative Variability of Modern and Ancient and of Rural and Urban Peoples,” Man, VI (London, 1906), 24–26.

An anthropological study. (VIII.)

Vuillenmier, J. F. “A comparative Study of New York City and Country Criminals,” Jour. Crim. Law and Criminol., XI (1921), 528–50. (VII, 5; IX, 2.)

XI. THE STUDY OF THE CITY

Attempts to understand the city and city life have resulted in two types of studies. On the one hand there are the investigations into special phases of the subject, and on the other are a number of systematic, generally co-operative, scientific approaches to the city as a whole. The increased attention which the city has been receiving at the hands of various types of experts has brought into existence a number of organizations and institutions which regularly occupy themselves with the collection of information relating to the city. This has given rise to a number of technical journals which are of great importance to the student of the city.

1. There are available at the present time a number of fairly exhaustive systematic studies of various cities. In most instances they represent the combined efforts of many students, extending over a period of years, to explore the realms of urban life in diverse parts of the world, generally with a definite objective in view. Only a few of such studies have been listed under this category.

Booth, Charles. Life and Labor of the People of London (16 vols.; London, 1892).

Attempts to describe the people of London “as they exist in London under the influence of education, religion, and administration.” Required seventeen years for its completion. Contains a wealth of information about the city and city life.

Gamble, Sidney D. Peking: A Social Survey (New York, 1921).

Harrison, Shelby M. Social Conditions in an American City: A Summary of the Findings of the Springfield Survey (New York, 1920).

Johnson, Clarence Richard. Constantinople Today, or the Pathfinder Survey of Constantinople: A Study in Oriental Social Life (New York and London, 1923).

Kellogg, Paul U. (editor). The Pittsburgh Survey (6 vols.; New York, 1914).

Kenngott, George F. The Record of a City: A Social Survey of Lowell, Massachusetts (New York, 1912).

Ostwald, Hans O. A. “Grossstadt Dokumente,” (Berlin, 1905).

A series of fifty volumes by various authors giving accounts of personal experience and investigation in the local communities and among various groupings and personality types in the city of Berlin and in some other large cities of Europe.

Rowntree, B. Seebohm. Poverty: A Study of Town Life (London, 1901).

Rowntree, B. S., and Lasker, Bruno. Unemployment: A Social Study (London, 1911).

2. The social survey is not only a technique which has been employed to study the urban community, but has grown into a movement of considerable proportions. From another standpoint the social survey may also be regarded as a means of control. Many of the “surveys” are merely single investigations of administration, housing, justice, education, recreation, in urban and rural communities, carried on by the group itself or by some outside experts called in for the purpose. Others are highly integrated studies of the community in all its phases. There is a tendency at the present time for systematic social research to take the place of the social survey in the study of community life. The latter emphasizes diagnosis and treatment, while the former strives to develop methods of disinterested research into various aspects of city life.

Aronovici, Carol. The Social Survey (New York, 1916).

Burns, Allen T. “Organization of Community Forces,” Proceedings of Nat. Con. Charities and Corrections, 1916, pp. 62–78.

Elmer, Manuel C. “Social Surveys of Urban Communities,” Ph.D. Thesis, University of Chicago (Menasha, Wisconsin, 1914).

Considers the social survey up to 1914 and outlines the scope and methods of the urban community survey. Also his “Technique of the Social Surveys” (Lawrence, Kansas, 1917).

Kellogg, P. U., Harrison, S. M., and Palmer, George T. The Social Survey Proceedings of the Academy of Political Science in the City of New York, Vol. II (July, 1912), 475–544.

“The Social Survey and Its Further Development,” Publ. Amer. Statist. Assoc., 1915.

3. While there are many periodicals which contain departments devoted to the urban community, such as the Survey, the Journal of Social Forces, and a number of others, the following are listed as typical of periodicals exclusively concerned with various phases of the study of the city.

The American City (monthly), New York. Now in its thirty-second volume.

American Municipalities (monthly), Marshalltown, Iowa. Now in its forty-ninth volume.

Municipal and County Engineering (monthly), since 1890. Indianapolis, Indiana.

The Municipal Journal and Public Works Engineer (weekly). Now in its thirty-fourth year. London.

The National Municipal Review (monthly), published by the National Municipal League. Now in its fourteenth volume. New York.

Die Städte-Zeit. In its fourteenth volume in 1917.

Der Städtebau. Monatsschrift für die künstlerische Ausgestaltung der Städte nach ihren wirtschaftlichen, gesundheitlichen, und sozialen Grundsätzen (monthly), since 1904. Berlin.

The Town-Planning Review. The journal of the department of civic design of the school of Architecture. University of Liverpool. Now in its eleventh volume. Liverpool.

La Vie Urbaine. Volume VII in 1924.