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Toward Sustainable Urban Development by Improving Healthy Environment, Economic Viability and Social Equity: A Study on the City of Abilene, KS
Shermineh Afsary
EDAC, Graduate Research and Teaching Assistant, PhD student in the School of Architecture and Design, The University of Kansas
Abstract
Sustainable urban development covers a range of development to build cities so that they become economically strong, socially equitable, and environmentally healthy. The purpose of this research is to assess sustainable urban development in the context of a City in the USA by improving three main aspects of sustainability including a healthy environment, economic viability, and social equity. In this regard, equal access to healthy environment, prosperous economic and urban services is considered and the criteria in this research are selected according to the available resources of three aspects of sustainable local development to be assessed in terms of access to all the residents including the households with a different level of income. As WHO reported, more than 80% of people live in urban areas. This research is significant since the planning for sustainable cities can improve urban life of present and future generation. The methodology of this research is a qualitative phenomenological study with a case study of the City of Abilene, KS. This Assessment is conducted by mapped spatial distribution systems in the form of accessibility patterns in different areas of the city with different household median income. A healthy environment is assessed by the spatial distribution of health centers, hospitals, park, and recreations. Economic viability is assessed by equal access to employment and source of income. Social equity is assessed by mapping different urban services, housing, and educational services and its access by a different zone of the city with different household median income. Finally, lack of equal access to the healthy environment, health service, employment and source of income, urban services, housing, and education is found which mostly created by social-economical segregation of urban spaces. Then, some strategies and solutions are recommended to solve it.
Keywords: Sustainable Urban development, Healthy Environment, Economical Viability, Social Equity, Abilene, Kansas
Introduction
“Sustainable Urban Development” covers a range of strategies in development, which helps to protect health and natural environment and make our communities more economically stronger, socially equitable and environmentally healthy. The World Health Organization (WHO) defines environment, as it relates to health to prevent from disease. Economic viability means to be able to secure financing of the society avoiding wasting the resources. Social equity is a fair distribution and access to resources/ capital. Equity in urban distribution of urban services between social levels has become a prevailing theory in urban service delivery literature (Mladenka, 1980). According to definition of WHO, equity is the absence of avoidable or remediable differences between groups of people defined socially, economically, demographically, or geographically. The theory of equity states “when distributions are inequitable, there is no systematic underclass bias” (Koehler and Wrightson, 1987, p. 81). Everybody in the world have the right to live happy, healthy, and wealthy with a high quality of social life attained by equal access to urban services, health services and employment. In this regard, quantity of distribution, variability and location of resources is important. Therefore, the criteria in this research is selected according to the available resources of three main aspects of sustainable urban development to be assessed in terms of access to all the residents including the households with different level of income.
Figure 1. Relationship of environmental, social and economic concerns in sustainable development (https://sisu.ut.ee/dev/env-intro/book/1-1-sustainable-development)
Methodology and method
The methodology of this research is a qualitative phenomenological study with a case study. In the city of Abilene, KS, assessment of three aspects of sustainable local development is conducted by mapped spatial distribution systems in the form of accessibility patterns in different areas of the city with different household median income. Healthy environment is assessed by spatial distribution of health centers, hospitals, park and recreations. Economical viability is assessed by equal access to employment and source of income. Social equity is assessed by mapping different urban services, housing and educational services and its access by different zone of the city with different household median income.
Case Study: Abilene, Kansas
The research setting is the city of Abilene located in the Dickinson County, State of Kansas, United States. As of the 2014 census, the city population was 6,590 (Urban population: 6,569 (all inside urban clusters), Rural population: 74 (all nonfarm). This city has been first settled in the year of 1858.
Analysis of Healthy Environment by Equal Access to Parks and Recreation
Recreation can improve the level of health & wellness and boost the body and mind for better activity in life. Looking and General health condition of Abilene Kansas, we can see the it is 55.3% which can be improved by many factors, one of them is level of recreation in the city. There are one City park and one golf course, both of them are located in the west of the city. By looking the map of location of park and recreation overlaid on median income, we can see that we need some park, recreation or at least green pathways near downtown for access of kids and families with lower household income level. This lack of park near the downtown can damage the mental and physical health of these group of people which are more vulnerable. Adult diabetes rate in this county is 8.7% and adult obesity rate is 29.1% and preschool obesity rate is 8.5%. So, To decrease the level of disease such as diabetes and obesity, we need to increase the physical activities of residents by planning and designing parks and recreation centers which are accessible by all residents.
Figure 2. Park and recreation locations overlaid on households’ median income map
Analysis of Healthy Environment by Equal Access to Healthcare
To realize a healthy environment and healthy urban life, all residents should utilize all healthcare services in the city. Services in close proximity are more useful to residents than those further away.
Seventy seven percent of people living in Abilene are covered by health insurance or some other kind of health care plan. But, the distribution of quantity of insurance is not important; actually the distribution of quality of insurance between residents are important. General health condition of Abilene, Kansas is 55.3% needing to increase for attaining a healthier and happier life by residents.
Physical access is an essential feature of an overall health system. Specially, in urgent situations, access to outpatient unit should be considered with a quick and close access. For analyzing spatial accessibility to healthcare centers, we look at the placement of health care centers and hospitals in Abilene, KS in the map of placement of important buildings and urban services, we can realize that some parts of the city doesn’t have a quick and close access to healthcare facilities. This city has six main medical centers. In the important building overlaid on household median income level, we can see three health care centers only in the area with highest income level which is half of the number of medical centers of this city. The people higher income level has more and easier access to healthcare facilities and it is another form of social inequity. Even at the west and north side of the city which residents have high level of income but they are in second and third place of median income, access to medical and healthcare centers is hard and we can see the lack of medical centers at these areas.
Analysis of Economic Viability by Equal Access to Employment and Source of Income
Equal employment opportunity is one of the most important aspect of economic viability. Level of income can define the level of wealthy and wealth can define power and access to resources such as housing, food, health, education. According to census in the website of www.city-data.com, percentage of residents of Abilene living in poverty in 2013 is 10.8% (9.1% for White Non-Hispanic residents, 1.9% for Black residents, 17.8% for Hispanic or Latino residents, 2.6% for other race residents, 41.8% for two or more races residents). Looking at the diagram of unemployment by year (%), we can figure out that unemployment rate has been decreased from 2010 until now. This is due to active industries in these cities. The most common industries in which men have occupation is manufacturing (19%), then retail trade and the least one is healthcare and social assistant (5%). But, the most common industries in which women have occupation is healthcare and social assistance (21%), the educational services (18%) and the least one is information (5%). In two others diagram, we can see the distribution of different occupation between men and women. In men, the most of the occupation is installation, maintenance, and repair occupations (14%) and then production occupations (10%) and the least one is Office and administrative support occupations (6%). In women, the majority of occupation is Office and administrative support occupations (21%) and the least one is cleaning and maintenance of buildings and grounds (5%).
Gender equality employment is one of the most concern in different countries, especially in modern life. The distribution of industries in occupation and the type of occupation between male and female are clearly different which shows the different ability of men and women, but it should not cause social inequity in access to different job between men and women. Everybody have the right of having their favorite occupation without considering their gender.
As discussed earlier in the transportation chapter, we can figure out that access to job and employment for those household with lower median income level is more limit, due to their limitation to access to transportation. They have little option to choose their job nearer to their place of living especially in down town which they live. But, the wealthier people have more option for choosing the place of their occupation due to owning car and commuting easily to their work.
Figure 3. Unemployment rate by year in Abilene, KS
Figure 4. (Left) Most common industry in 2013 (%) in occupation of men in Abilene, KS
Figure 5. (Right) Most common occupation types in 2013 (%) of men in Abilene, KS
Figure 6. (Left) Most common industry in 2013 (%) in occupation of women in Abilene, KS
Figure 7. (Right) Most common occupation types in 2013 (%) of women in Abilene, KS
Analysis of Social Equity in Land use Pattern, Urban Service and Connectivity
When examining social equity in a city from the point of view of urban morphology, for equal access to urban services, first we should study the pattern of land use and connectivity of different land use to each other. We should asses how residential areas with different residents have access to city buildings and services. The distribution of land use and the ability of residents for moving through should be studied to evaluate the level of social equity. By looking at the land use map of Abilene, Kansas we can see the placement and proximity of different land use and percentage of them in overall city. However, if their location and proximity to each other is proper from the point of view of access of different residents? Is access to main urban services and issues such as housing, education, work and employment , healthcare and medical centers, food service, recreation and parks and religious building are equitable? These are the main issues assessed in this article.
Figure 8. Land use pattern in Abilene, KS
Analysis of Social Equity in Transportation
Transportation is the essential infrastructure for providing movement and access to urban resource. If transportation system is not accessible to all people, social equity can be damaged. In the city of Abilene, Kansas the three main road provide the main transportation of this city. The highway located in the north edge of the city provide the main access of this city with other cities. The other two main roads, Old US 40, from east to west and S Buckeye Ave from north to south are the two other main roads of the city. By assessing the relation of time with typical traffic routes from 7:30 AM to 8:00 pm, we can realize that these three main roads are the roads that gets used which is due to the lack of public transportation system.
This city also have an airport, Abilene Municipal Airport located in south west of the city which make the city accessible to other cities in US, also there is an option of railroad in the south of the city which can be used by households with lower income level.
Figure 9. Transportation through road hierarchy and location of airport in Abilene, Kansas
Vehicle ownership is directly related to the demand for public transportation; lower income families are more dependent to public transportation (Berube and Raphael, 2005) and usually many low income households tend to locate near public transits (Murphy, 2010). In Abilene, KS Drove a car alone are 84 % and Carpooled are 11% of transportation to work. It shows the lack of public transportation for commuting to work. Mean travel time to work (commute) is 18.7 minutes considered a proper time which is less than 40 minutes, the maximum acceptable time of travel time to work.
Figure 10. Typical traffic of Abilene, KS at 7:30 AM and 8:00 PM
Figure 11. Mode of transportation to work in Abilene, KS
Analysis of Social Equity in Housing
Housing and having a shelter to live is one the basic resource of human need for surviving. In this regard, having the equal access to a safe house with a proper quality should be considered in attaining social equity. In Abilene, Kansas number of houses is 3,126 (2,857 occupied: 1,875 owner occupied, 901 renter occupied), percentage of renters is 32%, Housing density is 757 houses/condos per square mile. Median household income for houses/condos with a mortgage is \$68,321 and median household income for apartments without a mortgage is \$48,641. Median monthly housing costs: \$616. Estimated median house or condo’ value in 2013 is \$117,376. Median number of rooms in houses and condos is 6.0. Median number of rooms in apartments: 4.1. Median household income in 2013 is \$ 50’876 in year. By looking at the diagram of home sales in Abilene, KS we can figure out that ability of buying home has been decreased in recent years, due to increasing the median price of homes. The ability of buying home or even renting home is directly related to household median income.
Figure 12. Home sales in Abilene, KS in comparison with median price in years
By looking at household median income map, we can realize that residents who are affluent live on the outer parts of the city at east, west and then after that on the north side which is nearer to highway and far from down town, as they are able to afford cars for commuting to work and access to urban service. The average household income in these areas is over \$55,000. Notwithstanding, residents who live in the downtown have lower average income of between \$50,000 and \$36,000 leaving closer to their workplace at downtown to commute easier to their work by walks. Thus, homes in the older part of the city, near “downtown” Abilene in the core center of the city, should be less valuable than homes on east, west and north, near the highway. The average age of the older part of the city is from 1858, while the outer side of Abilene has been added recently as we go far away from the center core of the city. In regards of relation between housing and level of income, there is a social and historical segregation in two parts of the city, an older, less-valuable part of the city and a newer, more valuable part. We can obviously realize that the affluent people has separated themselves from the ones with lower income by living in newer places with higher quality. In this regard, social equity is damaged.
Figure 13. Abilene, KS, household median income map
Analysis of Social Equity in Urban Services
For assessing the placement of urban services in relation to social equity, we have prepared a map of urban services and important buildings in City of Abilene. By overlaying this map with the map of household median income and its relation to transportation and road hierarchy, we can assess the level of equity in access to urban service such as healthcare, education, food services and religious buildings.
Figure 14. Urban services and important buildings, Abilene, KS
Figure 15. Urban services and important buildings overlaid on income level map, Abilene, KS
Analysis of Social Equity in Education
In Abilene, KS there are five elementary/middle schools which are distributed in different areas with different household income. So, the distribution of elementary/middle school in this city is fare. But, there is a private child development institute in the east area of the city in which household median income is the highest and prepare students for success in life. There is only one public high school for the population of 6,590, this high school Abilene high school is located near the two main avenues and is accessible through these two main road by car driving. It is also accessible to downtown. Walking from downtown to this high school takes around 15 minutes, so walkability to this high school is possible by children of lower income households who are living in down town. There is also a one private high school, Abilene Baptist academy which has only thirty seven students and located in west edge of the city near to the park area. So, in a city which has only one public high school for 6,590 population, thirty seven of students from households with higher income has been separated in a higher quality area with park and recreation in its neighborhood. So, the discrimination in high school education is highly discernible. There are also seven Universities outside the city in less than 90 miles, in near towns and cities which are accessible only by car, which is accessible by the households which own a car. We can also see in the diagram of educational attainment that its level suddenly decrease from high school to University and college education. So, one of the reason could be the hardship of access to Universities and the payments for education which is hard for households with lower income. Education Gini index (Inequality in education) is a new indicator for the distribution of human capital and welfare—facilitates comparison of education inequality in different areas and over time. It is used to measure inequality in educational attainment. The higher the number, the more level of inequity. This indicator, here is 9.7 in comparison to its average in state of Kansas which is 11.3, the inequity is less than average of Kansas State, So it seems that average of other cities in state of Kansas are even more inequitable than Abilene in distribution and access to education.
Analysis of Social Equity in Food Services
In Abilene, KS we can categorize food services to four type of convenience stores without gas, convenience stores with gas, grocery stores and restaurants. There are eight convenience stores (no gas), five convenience stores (with gas), three grocery stores and three grocery stores and fifteen full- service restaurants. As the number of number of these stores related to foods seems proper and enough for this city, but the placement of them are not reasonable. Most of these food services are located in north with residents with high median income; and then in south and after that in downtown. The east side of the city, the norther part of the center, doesn’t have even one type of these four categories of stores for food services, so residents who live in these areas should have car to have access to their daily needs of food service. It shows the car oriented city planning and design. These type of cities are designed for cars rather than for pedestrians.
Figure 17. Placement of food services map in Abilene, KS
Figure 18. Placement of food services overlaid on income level map in Abilene, KS
Analysis of Social Equity in Access to Spiritual Expression
The majority of residents in Abilene, KS are not religious who are 53.9% of the population. The remaining population are protestant (21.3% of population are mainline protestant and 13.9% are evangelical protestant), the minority are Catholic (10.5%). In this city which only 46.1% of its population are religious who are Christian, we can see seventeen religious buildings and Church which are approximately distributed equitably in the city. By looking carefully, we can see most of the churches are located in the center of the city which is the older part and most of it are remaining from the past. In the newer section of the city in the east part and a section of west edge in which wealthy people live, there is no church added in the modern part of the city which reflects the needs of 53.9% of the people who are not religious in new development of the city.
Figure 19. Religion statistics for Abilene city (based on Dickinson County data)(www.city-data.com)
Conclusion
Abilene, KS needs more planning to become a more sustainable place for living. Social segregation between neighborhoods is clearly discernable. This social segregation has decreased the sense of community. In this situation, people with the weaker level of income would not have the sense of place in their cities and it can have negative implications for all the society even for wealthier people, such as decreasing level of mental and physical health or increasing the level of crimes as 1496 thefts and 453 burglaries per 100’00 in 2014 is reported in Abilene. Every day, wealthier people by having easier access to urban resources become richer and wealthier, as well as, weaker levels of the society will become poorer and more susceptible. This city with a car- oriented planning not considered a strong public transportation. By improving public transportation system according to goals and objectives of Transit Oriented development (TOD) all the people can move easily through the city and have access to facilities in the city and outside of the city. By improving the quality of health insurance coverage supported by government by using the tax from wealthier people and make a strong health insurance available to households with lower income level, the level of healthcare equity can be improved. This city needs more hospitals, especially outpatient care in down town considering all the districts equal accessible to medical centers. Designing and planning more green spaces, green ways, recreation in the center core of the city should be considered to improve mental and physical health, equitably.
Acknowledgements
I appreciate the advices of Professor Mahbub Rashid at the school of architecture and design, the University of Kansas that was very precious and helpful toward the success of this research.
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www. sisu.ut.ee/dev/env-intro/book/1-1-sustainable-development