General Biology I

Fall 2022 and Spring 2023 Course Materials and Study Guide

Current Author: Dr. Laura Broughton

Previous Authors: Dr. Annette Opler, Ms. Lorraine Rice, Dr. Michael J. Kanuck, Dr. Howard Balter

with contributions from: Mr. Brandon Ely and Dr. Chris Robinson

Department of Biological Sciences, Bronx Community College of the City University of New York

Syllabus – General Biology 1

BCC Catalog Course Description: 4 credits/ 2 lect hrs / 4 lab hrs

General Biology I: Chemical basis of life; cellular structure, function, and reproduction; photosynthesis and cell respiration; human anatomy and physiology; plant structure and function Prerequisites: MTH 03 or MTH 05, RDL 02 or ENG 02, if required

BIOLOGY 11 LEARNING OUTCOMES: General Biology I fulfills general education requirements for the CUNY Pathways Required Common Core, specifically for the Life and Physical Sciences requirement.

On the successful completion of this Biology 11 class, students should be able to:

• Demonstrate an understanding of the structure and relate the structure to the functions at every hierarchical level of plants and animals (Reasoning & Analysis).
• Describe the chemical basis of life; cellular structure, function and reproduction (Reasoning & Analysis).
• Explain and provide examples of how organisms, particularly humans, are able to maintain homeostasis (Reasoning & Analysis).
• Classify the organic molecules, explain their relevance to the human structure and function, and develop an understanding of how molecules can be transported across membranes (Reasoning & Analysis).
• Demonstrate an understanding of the processes of cellular respiration, biosynthesis, and photosynthesis and why humans are dependent upon photoautotrophs for survival (Reasoning & Analysis).
• Locate, evaluate, and apply information from a variety of resources into laboratory assignments and answers to short essay questions to relate biology to everyday life situations (Information Literacy & Written Communication).
• Demonstrate an understanding of how technology, particularly medical technology, has impacted human health (Global Awareness).
• List, in order, the steps of the scientific method and apply it to how to use the scientific method in the context of a laboratory experiment (Scientific Method).
• Differentiate among facts, theories, and hypotheses and distinguish between scientific and nonscientific explanations of natural phenomena (Scientific Method).
• Demonstrate an ability to formulate a hypothesis and conduct an experiment to test it: collect and analyze data and interpret results in a lab0ratory setting (Scientific Method).
• Interpret, analyze, and evaluate biological data and demonstrate an ability to create graphs using the biological data (Mathematical Methods).

CLASS SCHEDULE: You are expected to complete the requirements for the class in which you are enrolled. Any holidays or unusual class days (for example holding Monday classes on a Thursday) are listed on the BCC Academic Calendar. Changes due to weather or other emergencies will be communicated through the BCC homepage, BCC email Broadcasts, and the CUNY Alert system, when appropriate.

REGISTRATION: Check your computer printout carefully. Be certain that you are registered for this section of BIO 11. You MUST be officially registered to continue attending this class. Instructors are not authorized to issue notes to permit your enrollment. It is the policy of the Biology Department that we do not over-tally for Biology 11. DO NOT attempt to register for a full section through the Biology Department or the Registrar.

Biology 11 Lecture Syllabus – 2022-2023

Required Lecture and Laboratory Text: Biology 2e by Mary Ann Clark, Matthew Douglas, Jung Choi, second edition, published by OpenStax, Print ISBN 1947172514, Digital ISBN 1947172522, www.openstax.org/details/books/biology-2e

Biology 11 Laboratory Syllabus – 2022-2023

Required Lecture and Laboratory Text: Biology 2e by Mary Ann Clark, Matthew Douglas, Jung Choi, second edition, published by OpenStax, Print ISBN 1947172514, Digital ISBN 1947172522, www.openstax.org/details/books/biology-2e

Optional Lab Notebook: Student Lab Notebook: 70 to 100 carbonless duplicate sets, bound, by Hayden-McNeil Publishers, or similar DO NOT BUY THIS UNLESS YOU HAVE AN IN-PERSON LAB AND YOUR INSTRUCTOR INDICATES IT’S REQUIRED.

Visual Lab Supplement (in 4 parts): available as a download from https://sites.google.com/site/bio1112atbcc/bio-11-visual-lab-supplements

Please note: Laboratory activities (including the Labster simulations suggested below and the in-person activities detailed later in this Course Materials and Study Guide) are determined by your individual laboratory instructor. Your instructor will explain what activities you are required to complete in order to learn each lab topic in the syllabus below.

GENERAL INFORMATION

WORKLOAD AND RESPONSIBILITIES: Students should be aware of the challenge that this course will place upon their time and effort. This is particularly true for those who lack previous education background in the sciences, and more specifically in the biological sciences. Your success will be dependent upon your willingness to commit yourself to the necessary effort as well as learning how to utilize the tools available to you. These tools include lecture and laboratory outlines and reading assignments, and laboratory exercises.

ADDITIONAL LEARNING RESOURCES:

• Your professor may provide additional resources through Blackboard.
• The department study lab on the fourth floor of Meister Hall (ME418) is currently CLOSED due to the COVID-19 pandemic. If circumstances significantly improve during the semester, the department study lab may re-open.
• There is a companion website to this guide with links to relevant animations and videos: https://sites.google.com/site/bio1112atbcc/
• The BCC library has a dedicated page for the biological sciences with study aids, enrichment materials, and multimedia resources. They also have lists of COVID-19 resources and online services that they offer.
• The free human anatomy browser allows you to explore and study human anatomy by just signing up and logging into BioDigital Human at https://www.biodigital.com/
• The Department of Biological Sciences phone number is (718) 289-5512.

ATTENDANCE POLICIES:

Attendance Records: To obtain a passing grade, it is necessary and important that students participate in class and complete the required work. It is your responsibility to keep track of the required work and to be aware of the calendar of class meetings for your section. The Department of Biological Sciences currently requires your instructor to take and file attendance records for every class; if you are unclear how the instructor is counting attendance for your online class, ask your instructor to clarify the requirements. Please discuss any problems with your professor privately after class. If you have different professors for laboratory and lecture, BOTH PROFESSORS must take attendance.

Absences: Excused absences are at the discretion of the professor. Instructors also have the right to mark students absent in an online class if they do not complete classwork in a timely manner. 

W, WN, and WU Grades: If a student does not attend ANY sessions of the class or complete any required work during the first three weeks, the student will be marked as NEVER ATTENDED (WN) and removed from the class roster. The student CANNOT return to class once this has occurred. If a student stops attending class and completing required work, the student will be assigned an F at midterms and a WU at the end of the semester when final grades are submitted. Students may withdraw between the third week and the last class day of the semester. Students must fill out an online withdrawl form and submit the form online in order to be assigned a grade of W. Please note, the student DOES NOT need approval from the professor to withdraw.

Excessive Absences: The Department defines an excessive absence record as unexcused absences of more than 20% of scheduled class time. Students with an excessive absence record will receive an automatic grade of F in the course. Total scheduled class time includes lab, lecture, and online attendance, as required by the particular course.  Instructors are not required to grade tests and other forms of assessment of students with an excessive absence record. Instructors are also not required to offer makeup exams for students absent from scheduled exams.

GRADING AND EXAM POLICIES:

1. There is no extra credit given in Biology 11 or 12 in lecture or lab. You must have a passing grade on examinations and required assignments.
2. In-person lecture sections will have 3 exams plus a final exam, while in-person lab sections will have 4 exams and no final exam.
3. For online and hybrid sections, the number of exams and assignments is at the discretion of the instructor; however, all content on the syllabus will be assessed through either exams or assignments.
4. The final exam in lecture will be cumulative.  That means you will be tested on the material from the first to the last class and you are responsible for everything in the lecture syllabus on the final examination.
5. It is the policy of the Biology 11 and 12 professors that exam grades will never be dropped.
6. The student’s final grade in Biology 11 is an average of their laboratory and lecture grades (50% for each).
   1. Lecture (50% of total)
      1. formative lecture grades like quizzes, Dbs, wikis, etc. (0 to 6% of total)
      2. Lecture Exam 1 (8 to 10% of total)
      3. Lecture Exam 2 (8 to 10% of total)
      4. Lecture Exam 3 (8 to 10% of total)
      5. Lecture Final Exam (20% of total)
   2. Laboratory (50% of total)
      1. formative lab grades like quizzes, Labster, lab notebooks, etc. (10% of total)
      2. Lab Exam 1 (10% of total)
      3. Lab Exam 2 (10% of total)
      4. Lab Exam 2 (10% of total)
      5. Lab Exam 2 (10% of total)

Academic Integrity Policy: Academic Dishonesty is prohibited in The City University of New York. Penalties for academic dishonesty include academic sanctions, such as failing or otherwise reduced grades, and/or disciplinary sanctions, including suspension or expulsion. See the following website for a description of the CUNY academic dishonesty policy: https://www.cuny.edu/about/administration/offices/legal-affairs/policies-procedures/academic-integrity-policy/ Unless you are informed otherwise by your instructor, exams taken in an online or face-to-face environment are closed book; this means you should not be accessing information from any source (textbook, website, notes, other individuals, etc.) while taking the exam. Your instructor will inform you if a quiz or exam is intended to be open book and what types of behavior are permissible. For assignments and laboratory reports, your professor will tell you when sources must be cited, when individual (your own) work is required, and when group work is acceptable. If you are unsure about the expectations for an assignment, ask your professor for clarification.

Accommodations/Disabilities: Bronx Community College respects and welcomes students of all backgrounds and abilities. In the event you encounter any barrier(s) to full participation in this course due to the impact of a disability, please contact the disAbility Services Office as soon as possible this semester. A disAbility Services specialist will meet with you to discuss the barriers you are experiencing and explain the eligibility process for establishing academic accommodations for this course. You can reach disAbility Services by email at disabilityservices@bcc.cuny.edu and phone at (718) 288-5874. You may also reach disability Services through Microsoft Teams: log in using your CUNYfirst login and join Disability Service – Student Center. 

DISTANCE LEARNING & TECHNOLOGY

Distance-Learning: If this section is listed as a fully online or hybrid course, then at least 50% of the course content will be taught online. You cannot pass this class if you do not complete all of the assigned work. To participate in this course, you must have active BCC E-mail and Blackboard accounts (which is accessible through CUNYfirst) and access to a computer and the internet. Your instructor may choose to use either the asynchronous or the synchronous online learning mode; however, your instructor should make clear what activities you are expected to complete each week and how those activities will affect your grade. All instructors should cover all of the material on this syllabus. Completely in-person sections may still require that you access materials through Blackboard.

Labster: This course may use Labster for some of the required laboratory activities. You will be accessing the Labster simulations through the course Blackboard website. In order to see and successfully complete these simulations you must have access to a desktop or laptop computer. These simulations will not work on a tablet or phone.

Digital Syllabus: An ebook version of this General Biology I Syllabus may be accessed at https://cuny.manifoldapp.org/projects/general-biology-1-syllabus

Digital Course Materials and Study Guide: An ebook version of the General Biology I Course Materials and Study Guide may be accessed at https://cuny.manifoldapp.org/projects/general-biology-i

Proctoring: Instructors may require the use of proctoring software, like Respondus or Proctortrack when students take exams. Proctoring software requires the use of a computer and a webcam. Chromebooks or tablets will work with some software packages.

Recording of Class Sessions: Students who participate in an online class session with their camera on or use a profile image are agreeing to have their video or image recorded solely for the purpose of creating a record for students enrolled in the class to refer to, including those enrolled students who are unable to attend live.  If you are unwilling to consent to have your profile or video image recorded, be sure to keep your camera off and do not use a profile image. Likewise, students who un-mute during class and participate orally are agreeing to have their voices recorded.  If you are not willing to consent to have your voice recorded during class, you will need to keep your mute button activated and communicate exclusively using the "chat" feature, which allows students to type questions and comments live.

Technology: CUNY has created a student technology needs assessment and request form that should be visible when you log into CUNYfirst. Fill this form out to request a loan of a computer or other necessary technology, if you need it.

We expect most class sessions to take place in-person for Fall 2022. Some classes are scheduled to have online or hybrid labs. Here are the GENERAL BIOLOGY LABORATORY POLICIES:

1. Please turn off all cell phones, etc., before coming to class. The official policy of BCC is that you may not have them on during exams.
2. Do not eat, drink or chew gum in class since there are some chemicals we use in these laboratories that you do not want in your mouth!
3. You may not bring children or anyone else to class or leave them outside in the hallway – this is for the safety of your children so please adhere to this policy.

The COVID-19 EMERGENCY and ON-CAMPUS RULES

VACCINATION REQUIREMENTS: All students registering for a fully in-person or hybrid class for the 2021 Fall Term and thereafter must be fully vaccinated to attend in-person classes unless you have been granted a religious exception or medical exemption. For more information, visit the BCC webpage https://www.bcc.cuny.edu/covid-19/. Requests for religious exceptions or medical exemptions must be submitted via the CUNYfirst Vaccine Verification Form. The CUNY mandates are explained here: https://www.cuny.edu/coronavirus/.

CAMPUS REOPENING PLAN:

New Covid-19 health and safety protocols have been implemented to facilitate a safe return to campus.  BCC’s reopening plan can be found http://www.bcc.cuny.edu/bcc-return-to-campus-safely-re-occupancy-plan/   The science indicates that the best protection against the virus is to receive the vaccination for Covid-19, continue masking indoors and in crowded outdoor spaces, and continue practicing social distancing.  Information on the testing locations and other frequently asked questions can be found HERE. 

CAMPUS REENTRY: CUNY is using the Cleared4 system for campus access. Having both the Cleared4 app and the BCC app may be useful when verifying your access to the campus. See this webpage for more details about how to get back on campus: https://www.bcc.cuny.edu/covid-19/

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Guidance: Federal guidelines inform CUNY and BCC public health policy. The CDC Covid-19 website is the best source of information from the federal government about the pandemic: https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/prevent-getting-sick/prevention.html

If you test positive for COVID while taking this course: 

• Using your BCC email account, please email all your in-person and/or hybrid professors of your status
  • Please include your emplid # and current phone number in your email
  • You can also email your information to healthservices@bcc.cuny.edu
  • Your professor will work with you to complete class work while you are in quarantine.

• You will be called by a Health Services staffer.  It is critical that you connect with them in a timely matter for contact tracing information.
• You will need to submit a negative COVID test to HealthServices (healthservices@bcc.cuny.edu) before you are allowed access back to the campus.​

POTENTIAL IN-PERSON LABORATORY ACTIVITIES

Check your class schedule. If this class session is scheduled for in-person or hybrid laboratory sessions, you will use many of the laboratory activities on the following pages. (Online laboratory sections will not have any in-person lab classes.) Your instructor should provide you with a schedule of activities (that conforms to the Laboratory Syllabus earlier in this document) and indicate which laboratory activities will be performed in-person and which activities will be performed in an online setting.

LAB 1.1: Measurement & The Metric System)

Quantitative Literacy Activity

Distance

Length, width, height, and depth are all measurements of distance. In this laboratory, you are using rulers that have 1 English unit of measurement (inches) and two Metric units of measurement (centimeters and millimeters).

Metric Units of Length Measurement

Protocol:

1. Look at the small ruler provided.
   1. How many millimeters are in 2 centimeters? Record this in your lab notebook
   2. Determine the number of centimeters in one inch: ______ in = ______ cm
2. Using the small ruler, measure the height and diameter (at the widest point) in centimeters of a 100 ml beaker, a 125 ml Erlenmeyer flask, and a 100 ml graduated cylinder and record these measurements in your lab notebook using a table like the one below. Be sure to include the units.

1. Which of the items above has the largest diameter? Convert this measurement to millimeters.

Mass

In the metric system, we actually measure mass, not weight. We will be using two units: gram (g) and milligram (mg). 1g = 1000 mg

Today, we will use balance scales to measure the mass of several objects.

Protocol:

1. Label one each of the beakers, flasks, and cylinders with your group’s name & #1.
2. Using the balance scale, measure the mass of each of these items and record their masses in the table in your lab notebook.
3. Number two more beakers #2 and #3. Measure and record their masses in your lab notebook using a table like the one below.

1. Which of the items has the largest mass? Which of the items has the smallest mass?
2. Compare the masses of the three beakers. Are they very different? What is the average mass for these 3 beakers?

Volume

Volume is amount of space something occupies. The metric units we will use are the liter (L) and milliliter (ml). 1 L = 1000 ml

Protocol:

1. Fill the 100 ml graduated cylinder to 100 ml with water – make sure that you properly read the meniscus. Then, transfer the water to the 125 ml Erlenmeyer flask. Does the flask read 100 ml?
2. Compare the volumes from the graduated cylinder, Erlenmeyer flask, and beaker.
   1. Measure the mass of each container and record below.
   2. Add water until each of the containers reads 50 ml.
   3. Measure the mass of each container with 50 ml and record below.

• 1. Determine the mass of water in each container and record in the table above.
  2. What should be the mass of 1 ml of water? _________
  3. Which container does the best job of measuring the volume of water? __________
  4. Compare your conclusions to the rest of the class. What is the overall consensus for the most accurate measure of volume? _______________

LAB 1.2: How To Use a Microscope

Introduction: The microscope is one of the main tools of the biologist. Because so many biological objects are small it is necessary to use a microscope to increase our ability to view them.

Purpose: The purpose of the lab is to introduce the student to the basic parts of the microscope and acquire the skills necessary to use a microscope efficiently.

Objectives Checklist:

The student should be able to:

• State the function of the microscope.
• Identify and state the function of the followings parts of the microscope: Ocular lens or eyepiece, microscope frame, base, revolving nosepiece, objective, high power objective, low power objective, stage, slide holder, coarse focus adjustment knob, fine focus adjustment knob, condenser, iris diaphragm lever, light source, dimmer switch, X-axis knob, Y-axis knob
• Calculate the total magnification power of the microscope using each objective.
• Locate and bring into focus, using the correct procedure, and object under low power.
• Locate and bring into focus, using the correct procedure, an object under high power.
• Trace the path of the light from its source through the microscope to where it illuminates the slide.
• Use the text and manual and any other reliable sources to locate the definitions of the following words and phrases: depth of field, field of vision, inversion, par focal, resolution, and working distance.

Slides (to be used to practice microscope technique):

Pre-lab: The student should read the assigned pages in the course materials & study guide and the appropriate pages in the lab manual and text (see Lab Syllabus).

Using the lab manual, text, and any necessary additional sources, find the terms listed in the Objectives (above) and record their functions or definitions in your notes.

In-Class Activities:

Laboratory Set-up:

1. Get a microscope from the microscope cabinet and bring it back to your lab bench. Carry the microscope with two hands: one on the arm of the microscope and one under the base of the microscope. Do not tip the microscope – it must be kept level. In addition, do not let the cord drag on the ground.
2. From the slide trays, take one of the letter “e” slides (#97) and one of the colored threads slides (#98) back to your lab bench.

#97

Laboratory Tasks:

1. Before you use the microscope, draw a picture of the slide of the letter “e” with the label on the left side of the slide. Draw this in your lab notebook.
2. Place the letter “e” slide on the microscope stage. Focus the slide using the 4x objective. Then, using the revolving nosepiece, change to the 10x objective and adjust the focus. In the circle below, draw a picture of what you see when you look at this slide under the 10x objective.
3. What did you expect to see? How does this image differ from what you expected? Which of the terms from the last Lab Objective (field of vision, inversion, par focal, resolution, or working distance – Table 2B) applies here?
4. What is the total magnification of this slide? Show your calculations.
5. Change to the 40x objective and adjust the focus. In the circle below, draw a picture of what you saw when you looked at this slide under the 40x (high) power.
6. What did you expect to see? How does this image differ from what you expected? Which of the terms from the last Lab Objective (field of vision, inversion, par focal, resolution, or working distance) applies here?
7. What is the total magnification of this slide? Show your calculations.
8. Take one each of slides #98, 7, 17, and 21. Practice focusing with the 4x objective, then moving to the 10x and 40x objectives with each of the slides. Record any observations about the functioning of the microscope in your lab notebook.

Laboratory Notes and Clean-up

1. Before you leave the laboratory, please put away your microscope as follows:
   1. All microscopes should be returned to the microscope cabinet at the end of the laboratory period. Do not wind the cord around the base; instead, coil the cord to the side of the microscope. The number on the back of the microscope corresponds to a number on the cabinet shelf. Place the microscope on the matching shelf space.
   2. All slides should be removed from the stage and returned to their respective trays.
   3. The high power objective should be moved away from the stage.
   4. The light should be shut off and the power cord should be coiled next to the microscope. If there is a cover, it should be put over the microscope.
2. All slides that students take from the trays should be returned by the students to the appropriate trays by the end of the class period.
3. Report any broken, mislabeled, or faded slides to professor so that the slide may be replaced.

LABS 2.1 & 2.2: Cell Structure and Function

Introduction

"I took a good clean piece of cork and with a pen-knife cut off a thin piece of it, and placed it on a black object plate and casting the light on it with a deep planoconvex glass; I could plainly perceive it to be all perforated and porous."

With these words, written in 1665, Robert Hooke first reported the existence of cells. More than 170 years later in 1838 and 1839 the botanist, Matthias Schleiden, and the zoologist, Theodore Schwann, originated what we now call the Cell Theory. This theory states that (1) cells are the fundamental units of life and that (2) all living organisms are made up of one or more cells.

By 1956 biologists realized that cells fall into two basic groups: prokaryotic and eukaryotic. Prokaryotic cells lack a nucleus and are smaller than eukaryotic cells. Eukaryotic cells differ from prokaryotic cells by containing many membrane-bound organelles.

Purpose: The purpose of these labs is to compare the cell structures of different types of cells and to associate function with each organelle in the cell.

Objectives Checklist: The student should be able to:

• Distinguish between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
• Distinguish among Protist, Plant and Animal cells.
• Identify and state the function of the parts of a typical plant cell.
• Identify and state the function of the parts of a typical animal cell.
• Identify and state the function of the following parts of an Amoeba: cell membrane, contractile vacuole, cytoplasm, food vacuole, nucleus, nucleolus, pseudopod, ribosome.
• Identify and state the function of the following structures in a Euglena: cell membrane, chloroplast, contractile vacuole, cytoplasm, flagellum, gullet, mouth, nucleus, nucleolus, pellicle, pyrenoid, ribosome, stigma.
• Identify and state the function of the following structures in a Paramecium: anal pore, cell membrane, cilia, contractile vacuoles, cytoplasm, food vacuole, gullet, macronucleus, micronucleus, mouth pore, nucleolus, oral groove, pellicle, ribosome.
• Identify and state the function of the following structures in Elodea cells: cell wall, chloroplast, cytoplasm, nucleus.
• Prepare a wet mount. Wet mounts can be made of cheek epithelium, Elodea, potato, onion, and any living Protist available.

Slides:

Pre-lab: The student should read the following pages in the course materials & study guide and the appropriate pages in the text (see Lab Syllabus).

Using the text and any necessary additional sources, find the vocabulary terms (in bold text) from the objectives listed above. In your lab notebook, describe the function of each structure, note whether the structure can be seen under a light microscope, and indicate in which cells the structure can be found (all protists, Euglena, Amoeba, Paramecium, plants, animals).

In-Class Activities:

Laboratory Set-up:

1. Read through the instructions for Laboratory #3 in this course materials and study guide.
2. Get a microscope from the microscope cabinet and bring it back to your lab bench. Carry the microscope with two hands: one on the arm of the microscope and one under the base of the microscope. Do not tip the microscope – it must be kept level. In addition, do not let the cord drag on the ground.
3. Make a wet mount slide:

Slide - Wet Mount:

A slide on which you add an isotonic medium (a solution with the same concentration of solutes as that found inside the cell) to the slide with the living cells is called a wet mount. Any living cells without cell walls that you place in pure (distilled) water will burst. You may make wet mounts of the following live specimens: Elodea, potato, onion, human cheek cells, Amoeba, Paramecium, Euglena.

Protocol:

1. Take a clean slide and coverslip by their edges. You may remove dust or fingerprints with lens paper.
2. Place the specimen on a slide:
   1. For all protists:
      1. Using a pipet, draw a sample of liquid from the jar, beaker, or test tube containing the cells that you wish to view.
      2. If you are trying to draw up the cells with the liquid (e.g., for any of the protists), make sure to draw the liquid from the bottom or sides of the container.
      3. Place 1 to 2 drops of liquid on the slide.
   2. For Elodea:
      1. Fill the pipet with liquid from the beaker containing Elodea. Place 1 to 2 drops of liquid on the slide.
      2. Remove a single leaf and place it in the fluid on the slide.
   3. For Onion:
      1. Fill the pipet with distilled water. Place 1 to 2 drops of liquid on the slide.
      2. Remove a section of the thin membrane between onion layers and lay it flat on the fluid on the slide.
      3. Add a drop of iodine solution.
   4. For Potato:
      1. Fill the pipet with distilled water. Place 1 to 2 drops of liquid on the slide.
      2. Using a razor blade, slice a paper-thin piece of potato and place it on the liquid on the slide.
   5. For Human epithelial cells:
      1. Using a clean toothpick, gently scrape the inside of your cheek. DO NOT DRAW BLOOD.
      2. Place the scrapings on a clean dry slide. Discard the used toothpick in an orange biohazard bag.
      3. Add a drop of weak methylene blue or iodine solution.
3. With the coverslip at a 30° to 45° angle to the slide, place one edge of the coverslip at the side of the droplet of liquid sitting on the slide. Gently drop the coverslip so that the other edge rests on top of the slide. This technique will minimize the number of air bubbles under the coverslip.
4. View the slide with a compound light microscope.
5. Properly dispose of hazardous specimens and place non-hazardous slides and coverslips in the right containers for cleaning prior to re-use:
   1. Wet mounts of cheek epithelium and toothpicks should be disposed of in the special (bright orange) biohazard bags provided on the set-up tray.
   2. Wet mounts of non-human cells should be placed in the beakers provided on the set-up trays. Coverslips and slides should be separated and placed in their appropriate beakers.

Laboratory Tasks (use your laboratory notebook to draw, label, and answer questions):

1. Make a wet mount of a leaf of Elodea. Is it an animal, a plant, or a protist? Draw the cells and label the parts that you can see.
2. Make or borrow a wet mount of a slice of onion. Is it an animal, a plant, or a protist? Draw the cells and label the parts that you can see.
3. Make or borrow a wet mount of a slice of potato. Is this an animal, a plant, or a protist? Draw the cells and label the parts that you can see.
4. Make or borrow a wet mount of a Paramecium. Is it an animal, a plant, or a protist? Draw the cells and label the parts that you can see. [You may also look at slide #15.]
5. Make or borrow a wet mount of an Amoeba. Is it an animal, a plant, or a protist? Draw the cells and label the parts that you can see. [You may also look at slide #16.]
6. Make or borrow a wet mount of a Euglena. Is it an animal, a plant, or a protist? Draw the cells and label the parts that you can see.
7. Make a wet mount of your cheek cells. Is it an animal, a plant, or a protist? Draw the cells and label the parts that you can see. Dispose of this slide in the orange biohazard bag next to the sink.
8. What are the differences between prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells?
9. Name all the differences between an animal cell and a plant cell.
10. How does a protist cell differ from an animal cell or a plant cell?
11. Why are chloroplasts observed in Elodea cells but not in potato or onion cells?
12. Why are Amoeba, Paramecium, Euglena, and Elodea italicized?
13. In your lab notebook, draw and label the parts of the animal cell using the animal cell model.
14. In your lab notebook, draw and label the parts of the plant cell using the plant cell model.

Laboratory Notes and Clean-up

1. Before you leave the laboratory, please put away your microscope as follows:
   1. All microscopes should be returned to the microscope cabinet at the end of the laboratory period. Do not wind the cord around the base; instead, coil the cord to the side of the microscope. The number on the back of the microscope corresponds to a number on the cabinet shelf. Place the microscope on the matching shelf space.
   2. All slides should be removed from the stage and returned to their respective trays.
   3. The high power objective should be moved away from the stage.
   4. The light should be shut off and the power cord should be coiled next to the microscope. If there is a cover, it should be put over the microscope.
2. All slides should be returned or disposed of appropriately:
   1. All slides that students take from the trays should be returned by the students to the appropriate trays by the end of the class period.
   2. Wet mounts of cheek epithelium and toothpicks should be disposed of in the special (bright orange) biohazard bags provided on the set-up tray.
   3. Wet mounts of non-human cells should be placed in the beakers provided on the set-up trays. Coverslips and slides should be separated and placed in their appropriate beakers.
3. Report any broken, mislabeled, or faded slides to professor so that the slide may be replaced.

LAB 3.1: Chemical Composition of Cells

Introduction: All living things consist of several basic organic molecules. These include proteins, carbohydrates, and fats. These organic molecules can be detected with the use of various chemicals that change color in the presence of particular substances. You will use these color changes to identify whether or not a particular molecule is present within the samples.

The class will be divided into teams that will perform the various experiments for analysis of cellular chemical components. In this lab the students analyze specific known materials. In the next lab students may be asked to bring in samples of food for analysis.

Purpose: The purpose of this lab is to detect the presence of basic organic molecules by means of indicator reagents that result in color changes and to understand how these molecules function in living organisms.

Objectives Checklist: The student should be able to:

• Name the test for each of the specific chemicals analyzed (protein, complex carbohydrate, sugar).
• Name the reagent in each of the tests.
• Distinguish between a positive result and a negative result for each of the tests.
• Distinguish between the control sample and the positive standard sample in each test.
• Describe the chemical composition of specific cells based on the results of the analysis.
• Identify the variables in each experiment.
• Describe the effect of the addition of acid to buffered and non-buffered solutions.
• Define the following terms: control, positive control, negative control, variable, treatment, positive result, negative result, pH, acid, base, buffer

Pre-lab: The student should read the following pages in the course materials & study guide and the appropriate pages in the lab manual and text (see Lab Syllabus).

Use your lab manual and text to locate the definitions of the bolded terms in the Objectives – write the terms and their definitions in your laboratory notebook.

In-class Activities: In order to complete the first 3 experiments, your group should set up all 3 (Benedict’s, Iodine, and Biuret’s) at the SAME TIME. Carefully mark each test tube with both the treatment and the test. As you perform the tests, make sure to write all of the steps of the instructions in your laboratory notebook. Record all results in your laboratory notebook.

Tests for Carbohydrates:

Carbohydrates are the most abundant organic molecules on earth. They may be monosaccharides (one sugar), or disaccharides (two sugars), or polysaccharides (many sugars or complex carbohydrates). They have the general formula (CH₂O)_n. For the monosaccharides, n can be any integer between 3 and 8. Glucose is a common monosaccharide that has the formula C₆H₁₂O₆. Like all molecules, these are three-dimensional structures.

Monosaccharides may combine in varied ways. Lactose (the sugar found in milk) is a disaccharide composed of two monosaccharides: galactose and glucose. Sucrose or table sugar is a disaccharide composed of two monosaccharides: glucose and fructose.

Test A: Benedict’s Test for Sugars : After Benedict’s solution and heat are applied to a solution, the color of the solution reveals its sugar concentration. Blue indicates no sugar, while green or greenish yellow indicates some sugar, yellowish-orange is a medium concentration, and red has a high concentration.

Protocol A: Benedict’s Test for Sugars

1. Divide these tasks among the members of your group:
   1. Label 5 test tubes #1-5.
   2. With a clean mortar and pestle, grind the potato until it is almost liquid.
   3. With a clean mortar and pestle, grind the onion until it is well-macerated, almost liquid.
   4. Fill a 250 ml or 400 ml beaker 2/3 full with tap water. Place the beaker on a hot plate and turn on the hot plate. Bring the water to a boil before adding any test tubes.
2. Add a dropper-full (about 2 ml) of Benedict’s Solution (the testing reagent) to each test tube.
3. Add the substrate to each test tube: [Always shake each solution before measuring out a volume. Use a clean pipet or dropper – don’t share pipets among different solutions.]
   1. To tube #1, add 2 ml of distilled water. What is distilled water?
   2. Shake the 1% starch solution thoroughly. To tube #2, add 2 ml of 1% starch suspension.
   3. Shake the 1% glucose solution thoroughly. To tube #3, add 2 ml of 1% glucose solution.
   4. To tube #4, add 1 g of ground onion. (Use a clean small beaker to weigh the onion.)
   5. To tube #5, add 1 g of ground potato. (Use a clean small beaker to weigh the potato.)
4. Swirl each test tube to mix the Benedict solution with the substance that you added. Note the COLOR of each solution in your lab notebook.
5. Place the test tubes in the boiling water on the hot plate. Heat 10 minutes.
6. In your lab notebook, record the color of each tube after it has been heated, using a table modeled on this one:

Results of Benedict’s Test for Sugars

A Questions about the Benedict’s Test for Sugars (answer these in your lab notebook):

What is the negative control in this experiment? What is the positive control in this experiment?

What are the variables in this experiment?

What color(s) yields a positive result for simple sugars?

What color yields a negative result for simple sugars?

How are the results of the Benedict’s test different from the results of the other tests?

Test B: Iodine Test for Starch

Protocol B:

1. Divide these tasks among the members of your group:
   1. Label 5 test tubes #1-5.
   2. Grind the potato using the mortar and pestle until it is almost liquid.
   3. Grind the onion until it is well-macerated, almost liquid.
2. Add 5 drops of Iodine (the testing reagent) to each test tube.
3. Add the substrate to each test tube:
   1. To tube #1, add 2 ml of distilled water.
   2. To tube #2, add 2 ml of 1% starch suspension.
   3. To tube #3, add 2 ml of 1% glucose solution.
   4. To tube #4, add 1 g of ground onion. (Use a clean small beaker to weigh the onion.)
   5. To tube #5, add 1 g of ground potato. (Use a clean small beaker to weigh the potato.)
4. Shake each test tube. Record the color of each tube in your lab notebook using a table like the one below.

Table B: Results from Iodine Test for Starch

B Questions about the Results of the Iodine Test for Starch:

1. What is the negative control in this experiment? What is the positive control in this experiment?
2. What are the variables in this experiment?
3. What color yields a positive result for complex carbohydrates, starch?
4. What color yields a negative result for complex carbohydrates, starch?

Test C: Biuret Test for Protein

Protocol C: Biuret Test for Protein

1. Divide these tasks among the members of your group:
   1. Label 5 test tubes #1-5.
   2. Grind the potato using the mortar and pestle until it is almost liquid.
   3. Grind the onion until it is well-macerated, almost liquid.
2. Add 3 ml of Biuret solution (the testing reagent) to each test tube.
3. Add the substrate to each test tube:
   1. To tube #1, add 2 ml of distilled water.
   2. To tube #2, add 2 ml of 1% starch suspension.
   3. To tube #3, add 2 ml of albumin solution.
   4. To tube #4, add 1 g of ground onion. (Use a clean small beaker to weigh the onion.)
   5. To tube #5, add 1 g of ground potato. (Use a clean small beaker to weigh the potato.)
4. Shake each test tube. Record the color of each tube in your lab notebook using a table like the one below.

Table C: Results from Biuret Test for Protein

C Questions about the Results of the Biuret Test for Protein:

1. What is the negative control in this experiment? What is the positive control in this experiment?
2. What are the variables in this experiment?
3. What color yields a positive result for protein?
4. What color yields a negative result for protein?

Test D. pH: Measuring the negative log of the hydrogen ion concentration

Protocol D: Measuring pH

1. Rinse the electrode with distilled water and dry with a Kimwipe.
2. Calibrate the pH meter using the pH 7.0 buffer.
   1. Hit the on button of the pH meter.
   2. Immerse the electrode in the pH 7.0 buffer and wait until the electrode is calibrated. It should read pH 7.
   3. Rinse the electrode, carefully with distilled water and dry, gently, with a Kimwipe.
3. Immerse the electrode in the solution to be tested.
4. Record the pH in the chart below.
5. Repeat Step 4 and Step 5 for the next solution. Please note that if any of the solutions have a pH above 8 or below 5 then a different buffer must be used to recalibrate the pH meter, pH 9 and 4 respectively.
6. As you complete each reading, record your results in your lab notebook using a table like the one below.
7. Complete a bar graph based on the results in Table 5.3D.

Table D: Results of pH Test

D Questions using pH:

1. Which of the solutions above is the most acidic?
2. Which of the solutions above is the most basic (or alkaline)?
3. What is the pH of blood?
4. What happens to homeostasis when you ingest too much acid?
5. Why is fruit juice acidic? Isn’t that bad for the seeds in the fruit?

Table E: Review of the 3 Chemical Composition Tests: Create a summary table like the one below in your lab notebook.

Optional: Your professor may have asked you to bring in food or drink to test. Use the chemical composition tests that you have learned to test the substances. Record your results in your lab notebook using a table like the one below.

Table F: Results of Chemical Composition and pH Tests on Food Drink:

1. What is the control in this experiment? Why do experimental procedures include controls?
2. What conclusion can you reach about the chemical composition of each of these food samples?

Laboratory Notes and Clean-up

1. Before you leave the laboratory:
   1. Turn off the hot pad.
   2. Clean all glassware and weigh boats, and set upside-down back on the cart.
   3. Return all reagents and other supplies to the cart.
   4. Wipe down your laboratory bench.
   5. Throw away your gloves in the orange biohazard bag marked for that purpose.

LAB 3.2: Chemical Composition of Cells – Protein Concentration Curve

Introduction: Spectrophotometric determination of protein concentration.

You are working in a laboratory testing protein supplements. A new sample just arrived and you are supposed to determine the amount of protein in the supplement. In order to do this you must first create a standard curve, i.e. a graph which depicts the amount of protein as related to optical density.

You will take known concentrations of protein and react it with Biuret Reagent. The Biuret reagent contains sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and copper sulfate (CuSO₄). The reagent changes color in the presence of protein because the copper binds to the peptide. The degree of color change is directly proportional to the concentration of protein.

The objective of this exercise is to introduce you to quantitative determination of protein concentration or, in other words, to teach you how to figure out how much protein is actually in some foods. You will use a spectrophotometer to carry out the measurements. A spectrophotometer is an instrument which measures the amount of light that passes through a solution. It is really a fancy prism with a very sensitive light meter, but this instrument is much more sensitive than a simple prism with a light meter. Like the prism, the spectrophotometer is capable of breaking white light up into its component colors or into specific wavelengths, but it is also capable of measuring the degree of absorbance (how much light fails to pass through the solution) or transmission (how much light succeeds in passing through the solution) for a specific wavelength.

Light travels in waves. The distance between the crests of two waves is a wavelength and it is measured in nanometers. The wavelengths in the visible spectrum range from 380 nm to 750 nm. The Biuret reagent will react with the protein in solution resulting in a color change from blue to purple. Maximum absorption for the resulting reactants is in the range of 580 nm. All measurements must be taken at 580 nm. Each spectrophotometer is already set to the correct range. You should press the button marked nm to verify that your instrument is set to the correct wavelength.

Objectives Checklist: After this lab, the student should be able to:

• Name the test for detecting protein and the reagent used in this test.
• Use a spectrophotometer to accurately measure absorbance of a solution.
• Describe the function of a spectrophotometer and explain how the machine works.
• Record data in a data table.
• Calculate an average of two readings.
• Create an accurate X-Y plot of data by hand.
• Estimate an unknown variable (protein concentration in mg/ml) using a measurement (of absorbance) and an existing graph.
• Explain the purpose of a standard curve.
• Explain the purpose of duplicate standards and samples.

In-class activities: Quantitative Test for Protein: Protein Concentration Curve.

As you perform this laboratory exercise, make sure to write all the steps of the instructions in your laboratory notebook. Record all results in your laboratory notebook.

1. Label 18 test tubes as follows: 1a, 1b, 2a, 2b, 3a, 3b, 4a, 4b, 5a, 5b, 6a, 6b, 7a, 7b, 8a, 8b, 9a, and 9b.
2. Add 4.5 ml of Biuret solution to each of 18 test tubes as shown in Table 6.2A.
3. Add 4.5 ml of water, protein solution, the unknown, or milk, as indicated in Table 6.2A below. Do this in duplicate.

Table A: Test Tube Set Up for Protein Concentration Curve

1. Read the absorbance for each test tube on the spectrophotometer according to the instructions below.
   1. The instructor will DEMONSTRATE THE USE of the instrument for you. The cuvettes (tubes) should be used only when putting samples in the spectrophotometer. DO NOT MIX THEM UP WITH THE STANDARD TEST TUBES. Rinse them when you are finished with them. Use only Kimwipes to wipe them off. Do not use paper towels. These are expensive pieces of lab equipment.
   2. ZERO THE MACHINE: You only do this once! Begin with the water (control 1a), mix the solution, pour into cuvette, place into machine & close the cover. Once the absorbance stabilizes, press the zero button on the machine – it will change the number to 0.000. Keep this cuvette to one side to re-measure it every 5 or so samples. If the absorbance varies by more than 0.010, notify the professor.
      1. Do not put a cuvette with moisture on the outside into the spectrophotometer. The instrument can be damaged and your readings will be inaccurate.
      2. Mix each solution in its test tube again before you pour it into a cuvette. Dry off your cuvette with a Kimwipe after you fill it. Record the absorbance in the table.
   3. Fill the next cuvette with 1b, wipe the outside with a kimwipe, & place in the machine. Continue will all samples, checking the “blank” (test tube 1a) every 5 samples.
   4. Record the absorbances in the data table in your lab notebook as readings are taken (Table 6.2B).
   5. If the unknown (tubes 7A and 7B) gives a reading which is at the high end or the low end of your scale you may want to increase the dilutions and repeat the readings to get a more accurate measurement.
2. Determine the average reading for each pair of standards and samples and record in your lab notebook using a table based on the one below.

Table B: Sample Data Table for Absorbance Readings for Standard Curve (write in your lab notebook)

1. What are the possible mistakes that could alter the concentration of a standard or a sample?
2. Plot the standard curve on the graph paper below in your lab notebook. Plot the concentration of BSA on the X axis and the absorbance on the Y axis. Which of the above variables is the dependent variable and which is the independent variable?
3. What should you do if the readings for an unknown are out of range of the standard curve?
4. Estimate protein concentrations from measured absorbances by finding the absorbance on the Y-axis, drawing a horizontal line to meet the standard curve, then drawing a vertical line at a 90 degree angle to estimate the protein concentration on the X-axis.
   1. What is the estimated protein concentration for the unknown BSA solution? ___________
   2. What is the estimated protein concentration for the 25% powdered milk solution? _________
   3. What is the estimated protein concentration for the sports drink solution?__________

Laboratory Notes and Clean-up

1. Before you leave the laboratory:
   1. Turn off and cover the spectrophotometer.
   2. Rinse the cuvettes and bring them to the front desk when you are finished with them. Use only Kimwipes to wipe them off.
   3. Clean all glassware, and set it upside-down back on the cart. Keep all used/rinsed equipment/glassware separate from the unused glassware.
   4. Return all reagents and other supplies to the cart.
   5. Wipe down your laboratory bench.
   6. Throw away your gloves in the red biohazard trashcan marked for that purpose.

LAB 4.1: Exam 1

Your first laboratory exam will take place at the next meeting.

LAB 4.2: Mitosis – Cell Division

Introduction:

Life is handed down from one generation to the next in the form of new cells. A unicellular organism reproduces by dividing in two. A multicellular organism begins life as a single cell and through repeated cell divisions produces the many cells of its body.

Prokaryotic organisms easily divide in two through binary fission. In eukaryotic cells, cell division is made more complicated by the presence of the nucleus. Therefore, cell division in eukaryotes consists of two separate processes: 1) division of the nucleus and 2) division of the cytoplasm (cytokinesis).

Division of some cells in the reproductive organs produces gametes (sperm and eggs) that will give rise to the next generation. The two main types of nuclear division are mitosis and meiosis. Mitosis produces nuclei with the same number of chromosomes as the original cell, whereas meiosis produces nuclei with only half the original number of chromosomes.

Purpose: The purpose of this laboratory is to identify and list the events in the stages of mitosis.

Objectives Checklist:

The student should be able to:

• Explain how cell division differs between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
• Distinguish among cell division, nuclear division, and cytokinesis
• Define mitosis and describe how mitosis is related to cloning
• Identify and explain the events of Interphase and the four stages of mitosis: Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase
• Draw and label interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase of an animal cell with six chromosomes in the diploid state
• Distinguish between mitosis in an animal cell and mitosis in a plant cell and list the differences between plant and animal mitosis
• Identify and define the following: chromosome, chromatid, centromere, centriole, cleavage furrow, cell plate, spindle fiber
• Distinguish between mitosis and meiosis (in particular, distinguish between their functions)
• Distinguish between haploid and diploid

Slides:

Pre-lab: The student should read the following pages in the course materials and study guide and the appropriate pages in the lab manual and text (see Lab Syllabus). Using your text, lab manual, and any necessary additional sources, find the vocabulary terms (in bold text) in the objectives list above and record their definitions in your lab notebook.

In-class Activities (write in your laboratory notebook):

1. State the functions of mitosis.
2. How is mitosis related to cloning?
3. Place slide #31 (whitefish mitosis) on the microscope. Find a cell in each of the different stages of mitosis and draw each of them below. Label as many parts as you can see. What type of cell are these?
4. Place slide #57 (Allium root tip) on the microscope. Find a cell in each of the different stages of mitosis and draw each of them below. Label as many parts as you can see. What type of cell are these?
5. How does mitosis in animal cells differ from mitosis in plant cells?
6. Why is meiosis necessary for sexually reproducing species (like humans)?
7. What is the difference between cell division, cytokinesis, and nuclear division?
8. Draw the stages of mitosis in an animal cell using the animal mitosis models as examples. Label the following parts: chromosome, chromatid, centromere, centriole, cleavage furrow, spindle fiber.
9. Draw the stages of mitosis in an plant cell using the plant mitosis models as examples. Label the following parts: chromosome, chromatid, centromere, centriole, cell plate, spindle fiber.

THE CELL CYCLE & THE HUMAN LIFE CYCLE

Answer the following questions to the best of your ability. Use chapter 8 in your textbook as a reference.

1. Explain why cells are considered the basic unit of life.
2. Draw the cell cycle for eukaryotic cells. Why does this cycle not apply to prokaryotic cells?
3. Draw the human life cycle. It is the life cycle that all animals have (called a diplontic life cycle). Why is the process of meiosis important in the human life cycle? [HINT: Think about how the role of meiosis complements fertilization. Specifically, discuss the effect of both meiosis and fertilization on the number of chromosomes in a cell.]

LAB 5.1: Membrane Structure and Function

Introduction: Molecules within living systems obey the laws of physics with regards to movement. Passive transport such as diffusion and osmosis are critical to the survival of living things.

Purpose: The purpose of this experiment is to demonstrate the ways that materials move between and within cells and to demonstrate the effects of buffers.

Objectives Checklist: The student should be able to:

• Describe the process of diffusion, using as examples the experiments performed.
• Describe the process of osmosis, using as examples the experiments performed.
• Define the following words or phrases: diffusion, osmosis, isotonic solution, hypertonic solution, hypotonic solution

Pre-lab: The student should read the following pages in the course materials and study guide and the appropriate pages in the lab manual and text (see Lab Syllabus). Using your lab manual, textbook, and any necessary addition resources, find and define the terms (in bold text) in the objectives list above.

In-class Activities:

Students: As you perform these laboratory exercises, make sure to write all the steps of the instructions in your laboratory notebook. Record all results in your laboratory notebook.

Note to the Lab Instructor.

There are two different osmosis exercises included in this study guide (Exercises 9.3B & C). You may have your students do either or both exercises. In addition, there is an optional third exercise that incorporates macromolecules (Exercise 9.3D). Students should start all exercises at start of class.

Exercise A. Diffusion through a Gel and a Liquid

Protocol:

1. Take two Petri dishes, one with agar (a gelatin-like substance made from seaweed), one without.
2. Put water in the Petri dish without agar.
3. Put a dot on two pieces of white paper and center each Petri dish over one of the dots.
4. Sprinkle a few grains of dye over each dot and record the starting time below in Table A.
5. Record the starting time for each plate in Table A. Make sure that you include the units for all of your measurements and calculations.
6. Measure the distance moved in cm for each plate every 3 minutes and record in your lab notebook using Table A below as an example of the data table.
7. At 15 minutes, record the ending time, the final distance moved in cm, and the total time in minutes.
8. Calculate the speed for each plate and record in your lab notebook.
9. Graph your distance versus time for both plates in your lab notebook.

Table A: Comparison of Rates of Diffusion in a Gel and a Liquid

Answer the following questions from the data your recorded:

1. What did you observe?
2. What process occurred?
3. Under which condition was this process the fastest?
4. Graph the distance vs. time for both gelatin and water.

Exercises B & C. Osmosis: Check with your instructor to find out which exercises you are doing.

Protocol for B:

1. Cut a piece of dialysis tubing 12 cm long. Soak the tubing in water until soft & pliable.
2. Close one end of the dialysis tubing with a rubber band or clip.
3. Add 50 % karo syrup to the bag.
4. Rinse off the outside of the bag with water.
5. Note the color & volume of the solution in the bag.
6. Fill a beaker 2/3 full of water.
7. Place one end of a hollow glass rod into the bag. Using a rubber band or a dialysis clip, close the open end of the bag tightly around the glass tube. The tube will be sticking out of the bag. The solution should be touching the bottom of the stopper (there should be no air in the bag).
8. Place the bag in the beaker with the open end suspended by the hollow glass rod clamped to a metal stand. Make sure the contents do not spill into the beaker.
9. After about 30 minutes, note any changes. You may wish to measure the height of the liquid in the glass tube.

Answer the following questions:

1. What did you observe?
2. What does the dialysis bag represent?
3. What moved? How do you know what moved?
4. What process did you observe? How do you know this?
5. Was the dialysis bag placed in an isotonic, hypotonic, or hypertonic solution? Justify your answer.

Protocol for C:

1. Prepare three dialysis bags by taking three lengths of dialysis tubing about 12 to 15 cm long.
2. Soak the tubing in distilled water until pliable.
3. Label 3 250 ml beakers: Beaker #1 10% saline, Beaker #2 distilled water, Beaker #3 0.9% saline.
4. Remove one piece of tubing at a time from the distilled water, open the tubing, and tie off one end.
5. Set up the three bags as follows: Fill all three bags with 6 ml of 0.9% saline. Tie off the other end of each bag after filling it, rinse and pat dry.
6. Prepare three beakers as follows:
   1. To beaker #1, add 50 ml of 10% saline solution (10% NaCl), this represents a hypertonic environment.
   2. To beaker #2, add 50 ml of distilled water, this represents a hypotonic environment.
   3. To beaker #3, add 50 ml of 0.9% saline solution (0.9% NaCl), this represents an isotonic environment.
7. Weigh each of the bags and record their (initial) weights in Table C below. Make sure that you can tell which bag is which. You may wish to place them in the empty labeled beakers when you are not weighing them.
8. Place the bags in their respective beakers. After 15 minutes, remove bag #1 from the beaker, blot it dry with paper towels, weigh bag #1, and record the mass in Table C below. Return bag #1 to its beaker. Repeat for bags #2 and 3.
9. Blot dry, weigh, and record the mass of all three bags at 30 minutes, 45 minutes, and 60 minutes as well. Record your data in your lab notebook using Table C below as an example of the data table. Between bag weighings, proceed to other experiments while you wait.

Table C: Change in Mass for Artificial Cells in Isotonic, Hypotonic, and Hypertonic Solutions

1. Calculate the Rate of Osmosis for each bag’s mass at each of the time points and record in your data table in your lab notebook. To calculate the Rate of Osmosis for a bag at a specific time, first subtract the mass of the bag at 0 minutes from the mass of the bag at the specific time. Then, divide by the length of time that has elapsed since 0 minutes. For example: the Rate of Osmosis for bag #2 at 45 minutes = (bag #2 mass at 45 minutes – bag #2 mass at 0 minutes) / 45 minutes.

Answer the following questions:

1. What do the dialysis bags represent?
2. What process occurred? How do you know this?
3. Was bag #1 placed in an isotonic, hypotonic, or hypertonic solution? Justify your answer.
4. Was bag #2 placed in an isotonic, hypotonic, or hypertonic solution? Justify your answer.
5. Was bag #3 placed in an isotonic, hypotonic, or hypertonic solution? Justify your answer.

Quantitative Literacy Activity (adapted from C. Liachovitzky’s Osmosis Lab for Biology 23): Graph the results from Table C in your lab notebook. The results for all three bags should be graphed together. Graph A should show the masses of bags 1, 2, and 3 over time. Graph B should show the rates of osmosis for bags 1, 2, and 3 over time. The questions below are intended to help you complete the graphs correctly.

• 1. What would be the most appropriate titles for Graph A? And for Graph B?
  2. What is the label for the x-axis (independent variable) in Graph A? And in Graph B?
  3. What is the label for the y-axis (dependent variable) in Graph A? And in Graph B?
  4. What are the units used in the x-axis in Graph A? And in Graph B? Complete the graph including the actual units used.
  5. What are the units used in the y-axis in Graph A? And in Graph B? Complete the graph including the actual units used.
  6. What caused the bag to gain weight?
  7. What caused the rate of osmosis to decrease?

Apply your knowledge

The following graphs were obtained from two experiments with a similar setup to the experiment described above. The axes and units are the same as in Graph A in the previous page (x-axes: Time (min), y-axes: Weight of Dialysis Bag (g))

For graphs 1 and 2, what is the same or different from the your results? [Hint: use the words isotonic, hypotonic, and/or hypertonic in your explanation in your lab notebook.]

Graph 1:

Graph 2:

Exercises D&E. Tonicity:

Protocol D:

1. Cut two strips of potato, each about 7 cm long and 1 ½ cm wide.
2. Label two test tubes 1 and 2. Place one potato strip in each tube.
3. Fill tube 1 with water to cover the potato strip.
4. Fill tube 2 with 10% sodium chloride (NaCl) to cover the potato strip.
5. After 1 hour, observe each strip for limpness (water loss) or stiffness (water gain).

Protocol E:

1. Prepare a wet mount of an Elodea leaf in distilled water.
2. Prepare a wet mount of an Elodea leaf in 10% NaCl solution.
3. After a few minutes observe the slides through the microscope & answer the questions below.

Answer the following questions:

1. What did you observe happened to the potato strip in test tube #1 (distilled water)?
2. What did you observe happen to the potato strip in test tube #2 (NaCl)?
3. Why is the potato strip in test tube #1 (distilled water) in this condition? What process did you observe?
4. Why is the potato strip in test tube #2 (NaCl) in this condition? What process did you observe?
5. Why is the Elodea on slide #1 (distilled water) in this condition? What process did you observe?
6. Why is the Elodea on slide #2 (NaCl) in this condition? What process did you observe?
7. In your lab notebook, and example of an animal cell and a plant cell in each type of solution (isotonic, hypotonic, or hypertonic). Label the parts of the cells.

LAB 5.2: Enzymes

Introduction: Enzymes are biological catalysts. By lowering the activation energy required for a chemical reaction, they increase the rate at which that chemical reaction occurs. All chemical reactions within living organisms require the use of enzymes.

Enzyme function depends on enzyme structure. Enzymes are organic catalysts (usually proteins) that speed up chemical reactions because they have a three-dimensional shape that accommodates a specific substrate or substrates (the reactant(s) in a chemical reaction). Therefore, the shape of the enzyme determines the specificity of the enzyme and is important to the enzyme’s action because the reaction occurs at the region of contact between the substrate(s) and the enzyme. This region of contact is called the active site. A cell needs only a small amount of each enzyme because enzymes are used over and over again. Some enzymes have turnover rates well in excess of 1 x 10⁶ molecules per minute.

Enzyme activity is influenced by temperature, pH, and concentration. Molecules do not usually react unless they are activated in some way. In the laboratory, activation is often achieved by heating the reactants in a flask to increase the number of effective collisions between molecules. The energy that must be added to cause molecules to react with one another is called the energy of activation (E_a). For these degradative processes to take place without an enzyme present would require a much greater energy of activation (an influx of heat or light).

In general, cold temperatures slow chemical reactions and warm temperatures speed chemical reactions. Boiling, however, causes an enzyme to denature (change the three dimensional structure of the enzyme) in a way that deactivates the enzyme.

Each enzyme has a pH at which the speed of the reaction is optimum. Any other pH affects hydrogen bonding and the structure of the enzyme, leading to reduced activity.

Increasing the concentration of the substrates should increase the speed of the chemical reaction.

Catalase speeds up the degradation of hydrogen peroxide. The enzyme studied in this laboratory exercise is involved in a degradative reaction. The reaction breaks down the substrate into component pieces. Catalase is an enzyme that is present in cells and that speeds up the breakdown of hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) to water and oxygen. H₂O₂ is toxic to the cell. If a cell cannot convert hydrogen peroxide to water and oxygen, the cell will die.

Purpose: The object of the lab exercise is to investigate how various factors affect enzymatic activity.

Objectives: The student should be able to:

• Explain the role of enzymes in an organism’s metabolism
• Describe the effects of various factors on enzyme activity: temperature, enzyme concentration, substrate concentration, pH
• Identify and explain the following terms: enzyme, substrate, enzyme-substrate complex, enzyme specificity
• Understand and be able to explain how enzymes lower the energy of activation
• Understand and be able to explain how the quaternary structure of the enzyme determines its specificity
• Be able to use this enzyme and example in explaining the above concepts

Pre-lab: The student should read the following pages in the course materials and study guide and the appropriate pages in the lab manual and text (see Lab Syllabus). Identify and explain the vocabulary terms (in bold type) in the objectives listed above. In your lab notebook, draw and label the catalytic cycle of an enzyme – use the figure in Chapter 10 of your textbook as an example.

In-Class Activity – The Effects of Temperature, pH, and Substrate Concentration on Catalase Activity

***Before you begin, each member of your group should be assigned one of the first 4 sections of the protocol (I-IV); you will work on the 4 parts (I-IV) at the same time. Once protocols I-IV are complete, the whole group will work through part V together.

Protocol:

I. Substrate and Control Preparation - The enzyme catalase is present in the peroxisomes of potato cells. In order to free the enzymes it is necessary to break the cells by grinding them with a mortar & pestle.

1. Prepare the substrate
   1. Start with a piece of potato with a mass of approximately 6-7 grams (use the balance to make sure you have enough). Grind the 5 grams of potato using the mortar and pestle.
2. Set up your negative and positive control groups. These controls will be used for each of the three experiments you will be conducting.
   1. Label a test tube #1. Add 0.5g of sand. Add enough distilled water so that the water level inside the test tube is even with the 2ml mark.
   2. Label a test tube #2. Add 0.5g of ground potato. Add enough distilled water so that the water level inside the test tube is even with the 2ml mark.

II. Set-Up - Effects of Temperature on Catalase Activity

1. Set up test tubes for temperature variable
   1. Label a test tube #3. Add 0.5g ground potato. Add enough distilled water so that the water level inside the test tube is even with the 2ml mark. Place tube in boiling water bath until the start of the experiment.
   2. Label a test tube #4. Add 0.5g ground potato. Add enough distilled water so that the water level inside the test tube is even with the 2ml mark. Place tube in ice bath until the start of the experiment.
   3. Wait until all group members have finished their part of the protocol. Immediately before beginning part V of protocol, measure the temperature of test tubes # 2, 3, & 4. Record these values in your data table in your lab notebook (10.3A). Do not remove tubes 3 and 4 from their treatment until after you have measured the temperature.

III. Set-Up - Effects of pH on Catalase Activity

1. Set up test tubes for pH variable
   1. Label a test tube #5. Add 0.5g ground potato. Using a dropper, add enough 1M HCl (hydrochloric acid) to bring the level in the test tube even with the 2ml mark
   2. Label a test tube #6. Add 0.5g ground potato. Using a dropper, add enough 2M NaOH (sodium hydroxide) to bring the level in the test tube even with the 2ml mark
   3. Label a test tube #7. Add 0.5g ground potato. Using a dropper, add enough buffer pH 8 to bring the level in the test tube even with the 2ml mark
   4. Label a test tube #8. Add 0.5g ground potato. Using a dropper, add enough buffer pH 5 to bring the level in the test tube even with the 2ml mark
   5. After about 5 minutes have passed - Using pH paper, measure the pH of test tubes # 2, 5, 6, 7, & 8. Record the pH values in your data table in your lab notebook (10.3B)

IV. Set-Up - Effects of Substrate concentration on Catalase Activity

1. Set up test tubes for Substrate Concentration variable
   1. Label a test tube #9. Add 1.0g ground potato. Add enough distilled water so that the water level inside the test tube is even with the 2ml mark.
   2. Label a test tube #10. Add 0.25g ground potato. Add enough distilled water so that the water level inside the test tube is even with the 2ml mark.

V. Experiment and Data Collection

1. Measure the degree of bubbling in each tube before the reaction begins. Record these values in your data tables in your lab notebook.
2. To all test tubes, add 1 ml H₂O₂ (hydrogen peroxide). Record the start time (the time that the hydrogen peroxide is added to the test tubes) in your lab notebook.
3. Measure the amount of bubbling in each test tube using the scale on the side of the graduated test tube. Record the degree of bubbling in each tube into your data tables in your lab notebook every 2 minutes until you reach 10 minutes.

***each group member should measure and record the data of the test tubes they set up and share the data with the group after the 10 minutes is up.

Table: Sample Data Table (create your data table in your lab notebook)

Table A: Sample Data Table for graph of pH vs. enzyme activity (create your data table in your lab notebook):

Graph A:

1. In your lab notebook, plot your data from Table A for the effect of pH on enzyme activity.
2. How does pH affect enzyme activity?
3. Why does pH have this effect on enzyme activity?

Table B: Sample Data Table for Graph of temperature vs. enzyme activity (create your data table in your lab notebook):

Graph B:

1. In your lab notebook, plot your data from Table B for the effect of temperature on enzyme activity.
2. How does temperature affect enzyme activity?
3. Why does temperature have this effect on enzyme activity?

Table C: Sample Data Table for Graph of enzyme concentration vs. enzyme activity (create your data table in your lab notebook):

* Enzyme concentration is controlled by the amount of potato cells in each tube.

Graph C:

1. In your lab notebook, plot your data from Table C for the effect of enzyme concentration on enzyme activity.
2. How does enzyme concentration affect enzyme activity?
3. Why does enzyme concentration have this effect on enzyme activity?

Review Activity: Define each factor (temperature, enzyme concentration, substrate concentration, pH) and describe its effect on enzyme activity based on your experiences in this laboratory.

LAB 6.1: Animal Organization – Epithelial and Connective Tissue

Purpose: To be able to identify representative tissue types and their functions

Objectives Checklist:

The student should be able to:

• Define the following terms: tissue, basement membrane, cell, extracellular matrix
• Describe the function of epithelium
• Be able to identify and distinguish among the following types of epithelium (by structure, function, and location): simple squamous epithelium, stratified squamous epithelium, pseudostratified epithelium, simple columnar epithelium, simple cuboidal epithelium
• Describe the function of connective tissue
• Be able to identify and distinguish among the following types of connective tissue (by structure, function, and location): loose fibrous connective tissue, dense fibrous connective tissue, adipose tissue, blood, bone, cartilage
• Be able to identify the following parts of bone: osteocytes, Haversian canals
• Be able to identify the following parts of cartilage: chondrocytes, lacunae

Slides:

Pre-lab: The student should read the following pages in the course materials and study guide and the appropriate pages in the lab manual and text (see Lab Syllabus). Describe the function of each of the vocabulary terms (in bold) in the objectives above.

In-Class Activities:

• • 1. Place slide #1 on the microscope. What category of tissue is this? What specific tissue is this? Draw and label the tissue and the cells within the tissue.
    2. Place slide #2 on the microscope. What category of tissue is this? What specific tissue is this? Draw and label the tissue and the cells within the tissue.
    3. Place slide #3 on the microscope. What category of tissue is this? What specific tissue is this? Draw and label the tissue and the cells within the tissue.
    4. Place slide #5 on the microscope. What category of tissue is this? What specific tissue is this? Draw and label the tissue and the cells within the tissue.
    5. Place slide #6 on the microscope. What category of tissue is this? What specific tissue is this? Draw and label the tissue and the cells within the tissue.
    6. Place slide #94 on the microscope. What category of tissue is this? What specific tissue is this? Draw and label the tissue and the cells within the tissue.
    7. Place slide #95 on the microscope. What category of tissue is this? What specific tissue is this? Draw and label the tissue and the cells within the tissue.
    8. Place slide #96 on the microscope. What category of tissue is this? What specific tissue is this? Draw and label the tissue and the cells within the tissue.
    9. What is the function of the epithelium?
    10. What is a basement membrane? What is its purpose?
    11. Describe the functions, locations, and visual cues for the types of epithelium: simple squamous epithelium, stratified squamous epithelium, pseudostratified (ciliated) columnar epithelium, simple columnar epithelium, simple cuboidal epithelium
    12. What is the function of connective tissue?
    13. Describe the functions, locations, and visual cues for the types of connective tissue and their parts: loose fibrous connective tissue (e.g. areolar), dense fibrous connective tissue, adipose tissue, blood, bone, cartilage, osteocytes, Haversian canals, chondrocytes, lacunae.

LAB 6.2: Animal Organization – Muscle and Nervous Tissue

Purpose: To be able to identify representative tissue types and their functions

Objectives Checklist:

The student should be able to:

• Describe the function of muscle
• Be able to identify and distinguish among the following types of muscle (by structure, function, and location): smooth muscle, skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, intercalated disc, striation
• Describe the function of nervous tissue
• Be able to identify and distinguish among the following parts of the neuron: cell body, nucleus, dendrites, axon, myelin sheath, terminal bulb, nodes of Ranvier

Slides:

Pre-lab: The student should read the following pages in the course materials and study guide and the appropriate pages in the lab manual and text (see Lab Syllabus). Describe the functions of the different type of muscle and the structures of a neuron.

In-Class Activities:

1. Place slide #4a on the microscope. What category of tissue is this? What specific tissue is this? Draw and label the tissue and the cells within the tissue.
2. Place slide #4b on the microscope. What category of tissue is this? What specific tissue is this? Draw and label the tissue and the cells within the tissue.
3. Place slide #4c on the microscope. What category of tissue is this? What specific tissue is this? Draw and label the tissue and the cells within the tissue.
4. Place slide #8 on the microscope. What category of tissue is this? What specific tissue is this? Draw and label the tissue and the cells within the tissue.
5. What is the function of muscle?
6. Identify the types of muscle, their functions, and where they are found. Describe and draw any unique visual cues: smooth muscle, skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle
7. What is the function of nervous tissue?
8. Identify the parts of the neuron, explain their functions, and draw and/or describe their unique visual cues: cell body, nucleus, dendrites, axon, myelin sheath, terminal bulb, nodes of Ranvier.

Post-Lab: Briefly explain how the structure of EACH of the following tissues is well suited to its function.

1. Stratified Squamous epithelium in the skin
2. Fibrous connective tissue in a ligament
3. Neurons in the brain
4. Simple Squamous epithelium lining the lung
5. Bone tissue in the leg
6. Cardiac muscle in the heart

LAB 7.1: Exam 2

The Second Lab Exam usually follows Animal Organization. Check with your professor to find out if it will be next week.

LAB 7.2: Photosynthesis

Introduction: Photosynthesis is the process by which green plants (and algae and cyanobacteria) convert light energy into chemical energy. Chlorophyll molecules trap light energy and use it to synthesize sugar. H₂O and CO₂ in the presence of light are converted to sugar. Oxygen is a by-product of this reaction. In green plants photosynthesis takes place in specialized organelles called chloroplasts.

Purpose: To understand how changes in environmental variables affect the rate of photosynthesis.

Objectives Checklist:

• Write and explain the chemical equation for photosynthesis.
• Explain the difference between the light reactions and the dark reactions of photosynthesis.
• Explain why (and in what proportion) there is always more oxygen produced than sugar by photosynthesis.
• Explain the effect of changing the amount of available carbon dioxide, water (both in air and soil), and light on the production of sugar by photosynthesis.
• Explain the effect of changing the temperature on the production of sugar by photosynthesis.
• Explain the effect of changing the available light wavelengths on the production of sugar.
• Create one graph using data with two dependent variables.
• Interpret a graph with two dependent variables.

Pre-Lab: The student should read the assigned pages in the course materials and study guide and the appropriate pages in the lab manual and text (see Lab Syllabus).

Key Terms to Know:

Photosynthesis: the production of carbohydrates from water and carbon dioxide by means of chlorophyll in presence of energy-supplying light

Rate of photosynthesis: the frequency of oxygen production either per unit mass (or area) of green plant tissues or per unit weight of total chlorophyll.

pH: a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a solution, numerically equal to 7 for neutral solutions, increasing with increasing alkalinity and decreasing with increasing acidity. The pH scale commonly in use ranges from 0 to 14.

Buffered solution: a solution which resists changes in pH when small quantities of an acid or an alkali are added to it. light intensity: the amount of light that influences the manufacture of plant food, stem length, leaf color, and flowering.

Respiration: a biological process performed by green plants that creates oxygen and releases it into the air. During respiration, plants absorb free molecules of oxygen (O2) and use them to create water, carbon dioxide, and energy, which help the plant grow. carbon fixation: During photosynthesis, the process by which plants convert carbon dioxide from the air into organic molecules.

In-Class Activities: Floating Leaf Disk Experiment (see handout)

Optional Activity: Photosynthesis Graphing Activity (see Appendix II)

Floating Leaf Disk Photosynthesis Lab

Adapted from Brad Williamson’s Leaf Disk Lab (http://www.elbiology.com/labtools/Leafdisk.html)

Introduction

Light is a part of a continuum of radiation, or energy waves. Shorter wavelengths of energy have greater amounts of energy. For example, high-energy ultraviolet rays, with wavelengths of approximately 1 nanometer (nm) to 380 nm, can harm living tissues due to the large amount of energy they carry. Wavelengths of light within the visible part of the light spectrum power photosynthesis. The visible light spectrum is from about 400 to 750 nm (1 billionth of a meter). Only visible light, with its intermediate wavelengths, has enough energy to cause chemical change without destroying biological molecules. The short, high frequency waves of gamma rays (10^-5 nm) have too much energy and break the hydrogen bonds found within biological molecules such as proteins and nucleic acids like DNA. The longer waves of heat, microwaves and radio waves (10³ nm to 10³ meters) do not possess enough energy and are absorbed by the water molecules in a plant.

When light is absorbed by leaf pigments such as chlorophyll a or b, electrons within each Photosystem are boosted to a higher energy level. This energy is used to produce ATP, to reduce NADP to NADPH and then used to incorporate carbon dioxide (CO₂) into organic molecules in a process called carbon fixation. Leaf disks float, normally. When the air spaces are infiltrated with a solution the overall density of the leaf disk increases and the disk sinks. The infiltration solution includes a small amount of sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO₃) thus enabling the bicarbonate ion to serve as the carbon source for photosynthesis. As photosynthesis proceeds, oxygen is released into the interior of the leaf which changes its buoyancy causing the disks to rise. Since cellular respiration is taking place at the same time within the leaf, consuming the oxygen generated by photosynthesis, the rate that the disks rise is an indirect measurement of the net rate of photosynthesis. In this lab, you will measure the net rate of photosynthesis for several plants under various lighting conditions.

Materials

• 0.25% Sodium Bicarbonate (baking soda) solution
• Plastic syringe (10 cc or larger)
• Leaves (i.e. spinach, ivy, pokeweed)
• Two Light sources (desk lamps)
• 1 ml or 5 ml plastic disposable pipette
• 4 clear, plastic cups
• One 250 ml beaker
• One 500 ml beaker
• Metric ruler or tape measure
• Liquid soap
• Distilled water
• Timer
• Hole punch

Prepare Solutions:

Solution A: In the 500 ml beaker, combine 400 ml of the Sodium Bicarbonate solution with one squirt of liquid soap using a pipette. Avoid suds. If your solution generates suds, dilute it with more bicarbonate solution.

Solution B: In the 250 ml beaker, combine 200 ml of distilled water with one squirt of liquid soap using a pipette. Avoid suds. If your solution generates suds, dilute it with more water.

Procedure:

1. Label 4 cups #1, 2, 3, and 4 with the following information respectively for each cup:
   1. Sample cup 1: 30 cm CO₂ Light
   2. Sample cup 2: 30 cm CO₂ dark
   3. Sample cup 3: 30 cm Water/soap Light (This cup will not contain bicarbonate solution. It will contain distilled water plus a squirt of soap)
   4. Sample cup 4: 50 cm CO₂ Light
2. Hole punch 10 uniform leaf disks for each trial (cups 1,2,3, and 4) using the metal hole punch. Avoid the major veins in the leaf.
3. Prepare the leaf disks for cups #1, 2, and 4:
   1. Remove the plunger of the syringe and place 10 leaf disks in the syringe barrel.
   2. Replace the plunger, being careful not to crush the leaf disks. Push on the plunger until only a small volume of air and leaf disk remain in the barrel.
   3. Put a small volume of Solution A (the sodium bicarbonate and soap solution) into the syringe. Tap the syringe to suspend the leaf disks in the solution.
   4. Hold a finger over the syringe opening, draw back on the plunger to create a vacuum. Hold this for 10 seconds.
   5. While holding the vacuum, swirl the leaf disks to suspend them in solution. Let off the vacuum.
   6. If you need to, repeat the vacuum steps 2-3 times more, until all the disks sink.
   7. If the disks still don’t sink, add more soap to the solution and repeat steps 7-10.
   8. Pour the disks and the solution into the cup #1.
   9. Add 0.25% sodium bicarbonate solution to cup #1 until it is 3/4 full.
   10. Repeat steps a through i for cups #2 and 4.
4. Prepare the leaf disks for cup #3.
   1. Remove the plunger of the syringe and place 10 leaf disks in the syringe barrel.
   2. Replace the plunger, being careful not to crush the leaf disks. Push on the plunger until only a small volume of air and leaf disk remain in the barrel.
   3. Put a small volume of Solution B (the distilled water and soap solution) into the syringe. Tap the syringe to suspend the leaf disks in the solution.
   4. Hold a finger over the syringe opening, draw back on the plunger to create a vacuum. Hold this for 10 seconds.
   5. While holding the vacuum, swirl the leaf disks to suspend them in solution. Let off the vacuum.
   6. If you need to, repeat the vacuum steps 2-3 times more, until all the disks sink.
   7. If the disks still don’t sink, add more soap to the solution and repeat steps 7-10.
   8. Pour the disks and the solution into the cup #3.
   9. Add distilled water to cup #3 until it is 3/4 full.
5. With a measuring tape, measure 30 cm in vertical distance from the bulb of the one of the provided light sources to the surface where you will place the sample cups #1,2, and 3.
6. With the second light source, use the measuring tape to measure out 50 cm in vertical distance from the bulb to the surface where you will place sample cup #4.
7. As soon as you place the cup below the light source begin timing. Cups 1, 3, and 4 will be exposed to light during your entire experiment. Cup 2 will be exposed to the 30cm light for only 14 minutes. At 14 minutes, shut off the light and place Cup 2 in the dark for 16 minutes (wrap the cup in aluminum foil).
8. Record the number of disks that are floating at the end of each minute in the appropriate table in your lab notebook.
9. Gently swirl the disks with the pipette to dislodge any that are stuck to each other or the sides of the cup.
10. Repeat step 9 until ALL of the disks are floating.
11. Every minute, count how many disks are still floating in your lab notebook until all the disks have sunk or you have reached 30 minutes.

Data and Analysis

In your lab notebook, create tables for each of the 4 cups that are like these:

Cup 1: 30 cm Light CO₂

Cup 2: 30 cm Dark CO₂

Cup 3: 30 cm Water/Soap Light

Cup 4: 50 cm Light CO₂

Graph your results for each of the trials in your lab notebook. Use a color key to distinguish the data graphed for each trial. What is the dependent variable and on which axis should it be placed? What is the independent variable and on which axis should it be placed?

Questions:

1. What was the function of the sodium bicarbonate in this experiment?
2. Explain the process of carbon fixation.
3. Explain the process that causes the leaf disks to rise.
4. Which trial worked the best? Explain.
5. What was the purpose of using water/soap solution for one of the trials?
6. What is the effect of darkness on photosynthesis? Explain.
7. If we were to boil the leaf disks, what kind of results would you expect? Explain.
8. How does light intensity affect the rate of photosynthesis?
9. How does light intensity and the rate of photosynthesis relate to the position of the sun, both during the day and during the year?
10. Design an experiment using the same set up to investigate a different variable in the rate of photosynthesis. Make sure that you explain how you would collect your data and why you chose this variable to test.

LAB 8.1: Plant Organization – Roots

Introduction:

Purpose: The objective of this lab is to understand the structure and function of roots and to compare the anatomical differences between the roots of different taxa of Angiosperms (flowering plants).

Objectives Checklist:

• State the functions of the root.
• Distinguish the root from other plant organs.
• Distinguish between fibrous and tap roots.
• Distinguish between monocot and dicot roots.
• Identify the following root parts and state their functions: root cap, meristem, zone of elongation, zone of maturation, root hairs, epidermis, collenchyma, cortex, parenchyma cells, endodermis, pericycle, xylem, phloem, central cylinder
• Identify the following parts in longitudinal section (of slide and/or model): root cap, meristem, zone of elongation, zone of maturation, root hairs
• Identify the following parts in cross section (of slide and/or model): epidermis, collenchyma, cortex, parenchyma cells, endodermis, pericycle, xylem, phloem, central cylinder
• Explain how roots bring water and minerals in the plant.

Slides:

Pre-lab: The student should read the following pages in the course materials and study guide and the appropriate pages in the lab manual and text (see Lab Syllabus). Describe the functions of the root structures listed in the objectives above.

In-class Activities:

1. Place slide #57 on the microscope stage. Focus. Draw the root and label the zones and structures that you can see. Refer to “Root Anatomy” in the Visual Lab Supplement for help in labeling. Be sure to give your drawing a heading that includes the slide’s number and subject matter.
2. Place slide #51 on the microscope stage. Focus. There are TWO DIFFERENT specimens on this slide. Draw both cross sections (of the monocot root and the dicot root). Refer to the “Comparison of Monocots and Dicots” in the Visual Lab Supplement for help in labeling the structures. Be sure to give both drawings headings that include the slide’s number and subject matter.
3. Place slide #82 on the microscope stage. Focus. Draw the root and label the structures that you can see. Refer to “Root Anatomy” in the Visual Lab Supplement for help in labeling the structures. Be sure to give your drawing a heading that includes the slide’s number and subject matter.
4. Place slide #38 on the microscope stage. Focus. What does this slide show? Draw and label the important structures.
5. Place slide #84 on the microscope stage. Focus. What does this slide show? Draw and label the important structures.
6. State the functions of roots.
7. What are the advantages of a tap root, a fibrous root, or an adventitious root to a plant?
8. If you were to stain a cross section of parsnip root with iodine, you would find that the cortex changes to a dark purple or black color. Upon observation of the cross section under the microscope, it would be clear that the color is concentrated in small structures within the cortex cells. What type of tissue makes up this cortex (collenchyma, parenchyma, vessels, or meristematic tissue)? How did you reach your conclusion?
9. How does the root’s capacity to store photosynthate contribute to water absorption?
10. What do the cohesive properties of water have to do with water reaching the leaves in a tall tree? Draw a diagram illustrating your answer.

LAB 8.2: Plant Organization – Stems

Introduction: Sunlight is essential for a plant’s survival and success. Tall plants have an advantage over shorter plants in the competition for sunlight. The first land plants did not have competition. They were not tall. Stems allow plants to reach for the sun, lifting the photosynthetic parts of the plant closer to its energy source.

Purpose: The objective of this lab is to understand the structure and function of stems and to compare the anatomical differences between the stems of different taxa of Angiosperms (flowering plants).

Objectives Checklist:

• State the functions of the stem.
• Distinguish the stem from other plant organs.
• Distinguish between monocot and dicot stems.
• Distinguish between herbaceous and woody stems.
• Distinguish between primary and secondary growth.
• Identify the following structures in herbaceous stems: epidermis, pith, parenchyma cells, sclerenchyma cells, vascular bundles, xylem, phloem, cambium,
• Identify the following structures in woody stems: spring xylem, summer xylem, annual ring, cambium, phloem, cortex, cork cambium, cork, bark
• Explain how plants move water against gravity to reach the tops of their stems.

Slides:

Pre-lab: The student should read the following pages in the course materials and study guide and the appropriate pages in the lab manual and text (see Lab Syllabus). Describe the functions of each of the plant cells and stem structures in the objectives above.

In-class Activities:

1. State the function of the stem.
2. How is the stem different from other plant organs?
3. Place slide #72 on the microscope stage. Focus. Draw both cross sections (of the monocot stem and the dicot stem). Refer to the “Comparison of Monocots and Dicots” and “Monocot Stem Anatomy” and “Dicot Stem Anatomy” in the Visual Lab Supplement for help in labeling the structures. Be sure to give both drawings headings that include the slide’s number and subject matter.
4. What is the difference between the monocot stem and the dicot stem?
5. Place slide #81 on the microscope stage. Focus. Draw the stem and label the structures that you can see. Refer to “Tilia Stem” in the Visual Lab Supplement for help in labeling the structures. Be sure to give the drawing a heading that includes the slide’s number and subject matter.
6. What is the difference between herbaceous and woody stems?
7. Place slide #73 on the microscope stage. Focus. Draw the stem and label the structures that you can see. Refer to “Stem Tip” in in the Visual Lab Supplement for help in labeling the structures. Be sure to give the drawing a heading that includes the slide’s number and subject matter.
8. What is the difference between primary growth and secondary growth in stems?
9. Explain the difference between primary and secondary growth in a woody dicot stem. Use diagrams to illustrate your explanation.
10. Most of the tree is made of xylem cells and therefore, most of the tree is __________(Choose 1: meristem, dermal tissue, dead, involved in carrying oxygen). Explain your answer.

Quantitative Literacy Activity:

1. In your lab notebook, graph the relationship between light and transpiration based on the information in the table below.

1. In your graph, what is the dependent variable?
   1. Time
   2. Temperature
   3. Humidity
   4. Light
   5. Transpiration
2. Do these data support the hypothesis that the plants transpire when the light is more intense? Explain your conclusion.
3. Does temperature affect the relationship between light and transpiration? Explain. [HINT: You can graph temperature versus Transpiration Rate.]
4. Does humidity affect the relationship between light and transpiration? Explain. [HINT: You can graph humidity versus Transpiration Rate.]

LAB 8.3: Plant Organization - Leaves

Introduction: Leaves are the major photosynthetic structure in most plants. In the presence of sunlight water and carbon dioxide are used to produce sugar and oxygen. In some angiosperms, leaves have adapted to perform additional or different functions. For instance, in cacti, the leaves have been reduced in size and their shapes have been changed. We call these leaves “spines” and they protect the plant from herbivores.

Purpose: The purpose of this lab is to understand the structure and function of leaves and to compare anatomical differences among leaves from different taxa within the Angiosperms.

Objectives Checklist: The student should be able to:

• State the main function of most leaves. State what other functions leaves may be capable of performing.
• Distinguish the leaf from other plant organs.
• Distinguish between monocot and dicot leaves.
• Identify and state the function of the following leaf structures: cuticle, lower epidermis, upper epidermis, mesophyll, palisade mesophyll, spongy mesophyll, guard cells, stoma, vascular bundles, xylem, phloem
• Explain mechanisms and processes required to transport sugar throughout the entire plant.
• Explain the mechanisms and processes by which plants open and close their stomata.

Slides:

Pre-lab: The student should read the following pages and the appropriate pages in the lab manual and text (see Lab Syllabus). Describe the function of each of the leaf structures in the objectives above.

In-class Activities:

• 1. What is the main function of most leaves? What other functions might leaves perform?
  2. Distinguish the leaf from other plant organs.
  3. Place slide #48 on the microscope stage. Focus. Draw both cross sections (of the monocot leaf and the dicot leaf). Refer to the “Comparison of Monocots and Dicots” in the Visual Lab Supplement for help in labeling the structures. Be sure to give both drawings headings that include the slide’s number and subject matter.
  4. Place slide #55 on the microscope stage. Focus. Draw the cross section of the leaf and label the structures that you can see. Refer to the “Comparison of Monocots and Dicots” in the Visual Lab Supplement and your textbook for help in labeling the structures. Be sure to give the drawing a heading that includes the slide’s number and subject matter.
  5. What differences are there between monocot and dicot leaves?
  6. Place slide #83 on the microscope stage. Focus. Draw the cross section of the leaf and label the structures that you can see. Refer to the lab manual and your textbook for help in labeling the structures. Be sure to give the drawing a heading that includes the slide’s number and subject matter.
  7. How does a plant open and close its stomata? Be detailed in your explanation. You may wish to include diagrams. Be sure to mention which chemical processes (that we have studied before) are important in making it possible for the plant to control its stomata.
  8. Explain mechanisms and processes required to transport sugar throughout the entire plant. Be detailed in your explanation. You may wish to include diagrams. Be sure to mention which chemical processes (that we have studied before) are important in making it possible for the plant to control the movement and storage of sugar.
  9. The leaves of a cactus or a desert Euphorbiaceae are adapted to the desert. How are the leaves of these plants different in both structure and function from a maple leaf?
  10. The leaf of a plant appears green because:
      • • 1. All wavelengths of visible light are absorbed by the plant pigment chlorophyll except green which is reflected to the retina of the eye.
          2. All wavelengths of visible light are reflected to the eye except green which is absorbed by the pigment chlorophyll.
          3. Chlorophyll is stained green
          4. Leaves can only be green.
  11. Justify your answer in #10.

Post-Lab: REVIEW OF PLANT ORGANIZATION (LAB 8)

Identify the differences between herbaceous monocots and herbaceous dicots in your lab notebook. Use both words & diagrams to illustrate the differences (consider using a table like the one below). Be sure to comment on both 1) overall morphology (physical appearance) and 2) the pattern of vascular bundles in cross section for each of the following plant organs: roots, stems, and leaves.

LAB 9.1: Exam 3

The Third Lab Exam usually follows Plant Organization. Check with your professor to find out if it will be next week.

LAB 9.2: Skeletal System

Introduction: The skeletal system is a multi-functional system. In addition to providing protection, movement, and support for the body, the skeleton is the site of blood cell production (hemopoiesis).

Purpose:

Objectives Checklist:

The students should be able to:

• Explain the function of the skeletal system.
• Identify and locate the following bones of the axial human skeleton: skull bones (cranial bones, mandible, maxilla), vertebrae (cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacrum), hyoid
• Identify and locate the following bones of the appendicular skeleton: pectoral girdle (clavicle, scapula), arm (humerus, radius, ulna), wrist and hand (carpels, metacarpels, phalanges), pelvic girdle (ilium, ischium, and pubis), leg (femur, tibia, patella, fibula), ankle and foot (tarsels, metatarsels, phalanges)
• Reconstruct a skeleton using the bones from a complete human skeleton
• Be able to explain the function of joints.
• Distinguish among 3 major types of joints: a ball-and-socket joint, a hinge joint, and a pivot joint.
• Explain the connection between the skeletal system and the muscular system.

Pre-lab: The student should read the following pages in the course materials and study guide and the appropriate pages in the lab manual and text (see Lab Syllabus). Describe the location and function of each of the bones listed in the objectives above.

In-Class Activities:

1. Identify and locate the following bones of the axial human skeleton: skull bones (cranial bones, mandible, maxilla), vertebrae (cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacrum), hyoid, ribs (true, floating, and false)
2. Identify and locate the following bones of the appendicular skeleton: pectoral girdle (clavicle, scapula), arm (humerus, radius, ulna), wrist and hand (carpels, metacarpels, phalanges), pelvic girdle (ilium, ischium, and pubis), leg (femur, tibia, patella, fibula), ankle and foot (tarsels, metatarsels, phalanges)
3. Using the bones provided in the boxes, reconstruct the skeleton on the table and label all the bones. When your group is finished ask the instructor to check your decisions.
4. What is the function of the skeletal system?
5. How are the functions of bones and muscles connected? Why is this system often called the musculoskeletal system?
6. Explain the function of joints. Explain the differences between a) a ball-and-socket joint, b) a hinge joint, and c) a pivot joint. Provide examples of each type of joint & be able to name the bones involved in the joints. Draw diagrams to illustrate your explanations.

To determine the gender based on primarily skeletal features:

Note: It is important not to depend on any single skeletal feature when attempting to establish the victim’s gender from their skeletal remains. You should always observe as many of the features of the remains as possible to increase the probability of successfully establishing gender.

Sexual differences in cranial morphology:

• General architecture: In males, the overall construction of the skull is heavier and more rugged looking than that of the female skull.
• Brow ridges: The supraorbital ridge of males is heavier and more pronounced than it is in females; in females the brow is smooth and flat.
• Cheekbones: The cheekbones of males are heavier and more laterally arched; in females, cheekbones are lighter, more compressed, and they tend to lack the lateral arching.
• Occipital condyle and mastoid process: In males, the occipital condyle and mastoid process at the rear base of the skull tend to be much more pronounced than in females, where they can be almost nonexistent.
• Chin shape: The shape of a male’s chin approximated a letter U, a females’ the letter V (square chin vs. round chin).
• Jaw line: The angle where the horizontal portion of the jaw curves upward into the ramus, or vertical part of the jaw, is much more angular in males than it is in females. Also, males tend to have more muscle markings at this angle.

Sexual differences in pelvic morphology:

• General architecture: The width of the pelvic girdle is broader in females than it is in males. In females, the pelvic girdle surrounds a birth canal large enough for a fetus to pass. In males, the pelvic opening is less round and open.
• Pelvic opening: The opening of the pelvis, called the pelvic inlet, is rounder and larger in females, while in males it tends to be narrow and more constricted.
• Pubic arch: The joining of the bones at the bottom of the pelvis forms a broad angle in females, usually greater than 90°, while in males it is narrow, usually less than 90°.

LABS 10.1 & 10.2: Introduction to the Fetal Pig – External Anatomy and the Abdominal and Thoracic Cavities

Introduction: The pig (Sus scrofa domestica) is a mammal like humans (Homo sapiens sapiens). The pig can be used as an analog for human anatomy. Pigs and humans are classified as follows:

Purpose: Students will develop a better understanding of mammalian anatomy and physiology.

Objectives Checklist:

• Identify and state the function of the following external structures on the pig: ears, eyelids, nose, tail, nipples, urogenital sinus opening, penis, tongue, umbilical cord, anus, genital papilla
• Identify and state the function of the following structures in the oral cavity of the pig: teeth, hard palate, nasopharynx, tongue, glottis, soft palate, epiglottis, salivary gland
• Identify and state the function of the following internal structures of the fetal pig and humans: mouth, pharynx, epiglottis, esophagus, stomach, pyloric sphincter, small intestine and duodenum, large intestine including cecum (appendix) and rectum, liver, gallbladder, bile duct, pancreas, nares, nasopharynx, epiglottis, glottis, larynx with vocal cords, trachea with cartilaginous rings, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli, lungs, diaphragm, thyroid gland, thymus gland, heart, aorta, spleen, urinary bladder, kidneys, adrenal glands
• Explain mechanical digestion and the different types of chemical digestion. Trace the path of a food item through the digestive system and explain what happens in each organ or structure.
• Explain respiration, gas exchange, and hyperventilation. Trace the path of an oxygen molecule into the body OR a carbon dioxide molecule out of the body, explaining what happens in each organ or structure.

Pre-lab: The student should read the following pages in the course materials and study guide and the appropriate pages in the lab manual and text (see Lab Syllabus). Describe the functions of the organs listed in the objectives above. State at least one function for each organ. Indicate the system the organ belongs to (transport, endocrine, excretory, nervous, digestive, etc.) For example, dorsal nerve cord -- carries nerve impulses (brain to body and vice versa) (nervous)

In-Class Activities: Dissection Procedure

1. Wash off the specimen to remove any additional preservative fluid.
2. Use a piece of string to measure the length of your fetal pig from the tip of its snout to the base of its tail. Run the twine or string along the dorsal part of the pig and then compare the length of string to a metric ruler to measure the length of your fetal pig.   Use the informational charts below to determine the approximate time from conception of your pig. You will be asked to compare your pig’s development to that of a fetal human.
3. Place specimen in a dissection tray. Tie a piece of string to a front and back leg. Pass the twine underneath the dissection pan to the other side and tie it to the leg on the opposite side to hold the legs apart.
4. Identify and state the function of the structures in Table A.
5. Cut the jaw if necessary to examine the Oral Cavity. Identify and state the function of all of the structures in Table B.
6. Begin dissection of the Thoracic and Abdominal Cavities. Make incisions to open the thoracic and abdominal cavities.  This should be done with ONLY with scissors.  Use the diagram of the pattern of ventral cuts. Do not use razor blades or a scalpel!. Keep the scissors parallel to the skin surface to prevent damage to the internal organs. Remove the flaps of skin to reveal the internal organs. While most of the pig's skeleton is cartilage as it is a fetal pig, bone development has started in the chest or thoracic area.  This means that more careful force will be required to cut through the sternum (breast bone). Be careful not to cut through the diaphragm. Identify and state the function of the organs in Table C in the dissected fetal pig & on the human models.
7. Complete the Quantitative Literacy Exercise on the next page.
8. Answer the Study Questions.
   

Key Anatomical Directions

Before beginning a dissection, it is important to understand the basic directional terminology associated with the dissection of specimens.   Some of these terms include proximal, which means toward the body, and distal, which means to move away from the body.  Other important anatomical directions are indicated below.

Dissection Safety Rules

Inform your teacher of any illness as a result of exposure to chemicals used in specimen preparation. Avoid contact with preservative chemicals. Rinse the specimens completely before dissection. Properly mount dissection specimens to dissecting pan. Do not dissect a specimen while holding it. Handle sharp instruments with extreme care. Always cut away from your body and away from others. Never remove specimens or their parts from the lab; all specimen parts must remain in the dissecting pan. Properly dispose of dissected materials and store specimens as directed by your teacher. Clean up the work area and return all equipment to the proper place when the dissection is completed. Please wash your hands!!

Dissection Equipment

The pictured dissection equipment from left to right is (1.) teasing or dissection needles which are used to pull apart muscle tissue, (2) dissecting scissors which are used to cut through tissue, and (3) a scalpel, which is a very sharp knife used to slice through and cut tissue.

Quantitative Literacy Exercise:

Average Development Rate of the Fetal Pig and Human Embryo/Fetus: The period of pregnancy or gestation for pigs is 112-115 days (3 months, 3 weeks, 3 days) and each female may produce a litter of 7-12.  As the period of development proceeds, the pig embryos get longer, so an approximate age may be calculated from the length.  (from Odlaug:  Laboratory Anatomy of the Fetal Pig, William C. Brown, 1955.)

Table A: Fetal Pig Development Table B: Human Embryo/Fetus

1. Estimate the age of your fetal pig:
   1. How long is your pig? Remember the units! ______________________
   2. Using Table 20.4A, estimate the gestation period of your pig.  How old was your pig approximately when it was delivered from the sow (its mother)? ________________
2. Based on the information provided to you in the table above, graph the developmental rates of both the fetal pig and the human embryo/fetus in your lab notebook. Make sure that you use the SAME scales for the pigs and the humans. Remember to use a proper scale, title your graph, label your axes, and key your graph. Based on your graph, answer the remaining questions listed here.
3. Plot the age of your fetal pig specimen on your graph. Ask your fellow lab students for the ages of their specimens: a) record the ages of at least 3 other pigs in a table and then plot them on your graph.
4. How does the growth rate of the last HALF of a fetal pig's development compare with that of a human embryo in the last HALF of a pregnancy?
5. OPTIONAL: What evolutionary explanation could explain the difference between growth rates of pigs and humans? Hint: Think about what affect the rate and timing of development may have on infant survival.

Suggested Study Questions:

1. What is the function of the intestinal villi?
2. OPTIONAL: Respiration:
   1. What happens to the diaphragm during inspiration? During expiration?
   2. What happens to the intercostals muscles attached to the ribs during inspiration? During expiration?
3. Imagine that you just ate a donut. What happens to the donut as it journeys through your digestive tract? What will happen to the donut in your mouth?
4. What is meant by mechanical digestion?
   1. What enzyme will begin to break down carbohydrates from the donut in your mouth?
   2. What happens to the donut in your stomach?
   3. What enzymes will break down carbohydrates in your small intestine?
5. Imagine an oxygen molecule entering your body. Describe the pathway that it must take to get to the hemoglobin in your blood.
6. OPTIONAL: A fellow student is anxious about an exam. He begins to hyperventilate and faints.
   1. What is hyperventilation?
   2. What impact did blood gases have on this incident?

LAB 11.1: Circulatory System – The Heart

Introduction: The human heart is a four chambered organ. It is located in the chest cavity. It lies between the two lungs and is anterior to the esophagus and the trachea. The heart is a four-chambered pump that develops early in the fetus. While it is only the size of a clenched fist, its powerful muscular structure is responsible for collecting and pumping blood with all its nutrients and gases via the blood vessels throughout the body. In this manner, the metabolic needs of all the cells and tissues are met.

Objectives Checklist:

• Explain the function of the cardiovascular system.
• Identify and locate the following structures in the human heart (and the sheep heart): Right atrium, Left atrium, Right ventricle, Left ventricle, Pulmonary trunk (artery), Aorta, Superior vena cava (anterior), Inferior vena cava (posterior), Tricuspid valve, Bicuspid valve (mitral valve)
• Identify and locate the following structures in the fetal pig: Right atrium, Left atrium, Right ventricle, Left ventricle, Pulmonary trunk (artery), Aorta, Superior vena cava (anterior), Inferior vena cava (posterior), Arterial duct (ductus anteriosus)
• Describe the journey of a red blood cell as it makes a complete circuit of the cardiovascular system. Describe each of the structures that it passes through (in order) in its journey.

Pre-lab: The student should read the following pages in the course materials and study guide and the appropriate pages in the lab manual and text (see Lab Syllabus). Describe the function of each of parts of the heart and associated vessels listed in the objectives.

In-Class Activities and Suggested Study Questions:

1. Look at the dissected sheep heart and the model of the human heart. Identify and locate the parts of the heart (all chambers, valves, and blood vessels in the table below). In your lab notebook, draw a diagram of the heart and label the structures on the diagram.
2. Complete the remaining objectives above.
3. Describe the journey of a red blood cell as it passes from the superior vena cava into the heart. What chambers and valves does it pass through? How does it journey to the lungs and re-enter the heart? How does it leave the heart?

1. Answer the following questions; use your textbook as a resource, if necessary.
   1. In the human body, the smallest blood vessels are _______, while the largest blood vessel is the ________.
      1. Arterioles … aorta
      2. Venules … vena cava
      3. Capillaries … aorta
      4. Capillaries … vena cava
      5. Veins … aorta
   2. Blood pressure is highest in the ________.
      1. Aorta
      2. Arteries
      3. Capillaries
      4. Veins
      5. Venae cavae
   3. Blood velocity is lowest in the ________.
      1. Aorta
      2. Arteries
      3. Capillaries
      4. Veins
      5. Venae cavae
   4. What are the important structural features necessary for blood vessels through which blood flows at high pressure and velocity?
   5. What causes the oscillations (repeated ups and downs) in blood pressure?
   6. Type II diabetes results from a problem with insulin – the body does not remove glucose from the blood as quickly as it should, causing elevated blood glucose levels. What would you expect a graph of glucose tolerance test on a person with Type II Diabetes to look like compared to a healthy person?
   7. Hypoglycemia is a disease that results from problems with insulin, just like Type II diabetes; however, with hypoglycemia, too much glucose is removed from the blood. What would you expect a graph of glucose tolerance test on a hypoglycemic person to look like compared to a healthy person?

LAB 11.2: The Circulatory System – Blood Vessels and Blood

Introduction: The blood vessels of the human body function as conduits for the circulating blood. While the heart functions as the pump, it is the blood vessels that deliver the blood containing all the nutrients to the cells and remove all the metabolic wastes from the cells. These vessels are often compared to a system of water pipes that similarly deliver fluids through a framework of a house. However, unlike water pipes, blood vessels are flexible and carry their contents to and from the heart. If a blood vessel becomes occluded (clogged), it impairs circulation and contributes to the death of the target tissues and organs of the body.

Objectives Checklist:

• Determine the blood type of an individual based on the agglutination test. Explain the roles of antigens and antibodies in blood transfusions.
• Define erythroblastis fetalis and explain the conditions under which it can occur.
• Identify and locate the following blood vessels:
  • Aorta (ascending aorta, aortic arch, descending aorta)
  • Superior vena cava
  • Inferior vena cava
  • Pulmonary trunk (splits into two arteries)
  • Pulmonary veins
  • Coronary arteries & (cardiac) veins
  • Right and left common carotid arteries
  • Right and left jugular veins
  • Right and left subclavian arteries and veins
  • Right and left renal arteries and veins
  • Mesenteric arteries and veins
  • Spermatic and ovarian arteries and veins
  • Right and left external iliac arteries and veins (fetal pig)
  • Right and left internal iliac arteries and veins (fetal pig)
  • Right and left iliac arteries and veins (human)
  • Right and left femoral arteries and veins
  • Umbilical arteries and veins (fetal pig)
• List three differences between arteries and veins.
• Explain the structure and function of capillaries.
• To trace the sequential flow of blood to major target organs via the major blood vessels.
• Identify the types of blood cells (using a human blood smear slide – slide #96).
• Name two possible causes of stroke and heart attack.

Pre-lab: The student should read the following pages in the course materials and study guide and the appropriate pages in the lab manual and text (see Table of Contents, pg 4). Describe the location and function of each of the blood vessels listed in the objectives above.

Blood Typing Exercise:

Purpose: You will be using a simulated ABO and Rh Blood Typing Kit to learn about the roles of antigens and antibodies in blood typing and their effects on both transfusions and pregnancy.

Background:

Blood consists of two parts 1) plasma (the liquid portion with solutes) and 2) solids (white blood cells, red blood cells, platelets, etc.). Red blood cells have carbohydrates on their cell membranes called antigens that serve as identification markers and, therefore, determine blood type. Proteins called antibodies, which are dissolved in the plasma, defend against antigens not normally found in that blood type.

When the antibody that defends against a specific antigen meets that antigen it causes an agglutination reaction. The blood cells clump, blood cannot flow, and the blood cells lyse and are destroyed. If this occurs inside a person, agglutination usually results in death.

Human blood can be classified into types. Blood types are genetically determined. You will be investigating two systems of blood typing in lab: 1) the ABO system and 2) the Rh system. When you are told your blood type (A+, O–, AB+), both systems are represented: the letters refer to the ABO system and the + or – sign refers to the Rh system.

In the ABO system, blood type A has A antigens on the surface of red blood cells and anti-B antibodies in the plasma (see table below). Blood type B has B antigens and anti-A antibodies. Blood type AB has A and B antigens and neither anti-A nor anti-B antibodies. Blood type O has neither A nor B antigens and both anti-A and anti-B antibodies.

In the Rh system, Rh+ individuals have Rh antigens, while Rh– individuals do not have Rh antigens (see table below). Rh+ individuals do not have anti-Rh antibodies. Rh– individuals start with no anti-Rh; however, exposure to the Rh antigen, induces a primary immune response in Rh– individuals and Rh– individuals develop anti-Rh antibodies. Any subsequent exposure of Rh– individuals to Rh+ blood produces the expected agglutination reaction.

For Rh – individuals, the exposure to Rh+ can come from either 1) transfusion or 2) pregnancy. If an Rh– woman who has developed anti-Rh antibodies (either by transfusion or the birth of an Rh+ child) becomes pregnant with an Rh+ fetus, a condition called erythroblastosis fetalis develops. Erythroblastosis fetalis leads to the destruction of the blood cells in the fetus and death of the fetus (a miscarriage). With modern medicine, we can give an Rh– mother an immunoglobulin shot at the time of the first birth of an Rh+ child to prevent her from building up anti-Rh antibodies and prevent ertythroblastosis fetalis from occurring with the next Rh+ child.

Transfusions: To determine which blood can be transfused into which people, compare the antigens of the donor to the antibodies of the recipient (see the table below):

Materials:

• 4 Blood typing slides with labeled wells
• 12 toothpicks
• 4 unknown simulated blood samples:
• (samples 1, 2, 3, and 4)
• Anti-A simulated typing serum
• Anti-B simulated typing serum
• Anti-Rh simulated typing serum

Protocol: (to determine blood type of each of the four unknown blood samples)

• • • 1. Using a wax pencil, pre-label each of your 4 blood typing slides with the synthetic blood sample number (1, 2, 3, or 4).
      2. Place the slides on a piece of plain white paper on the bench top.
      3. Shake all of the blood sample and serum vials thoroughly.
      4. Using the dropper vial, place a drop of the first synthetic blood sample in each well of the blood typing slide labeled sample 1. Replace the cap on the dropper vial. Always replace the cap on one vial before opening the next vial to prevent cross contamination.
      5. Repeat #4 for samples 2, 3, and 4 and the slides labeled samples 2, 3, & 4, respectively.
      6. Add a drop of the synthetic Anti-A serum (blue) to the A well on each of the 4 slides. Replace the cap.
      7. Add a drop of the synthetic Anti-B serum (yellow) to the B well on each of the 4 slides. Replace the cap.
      8. Add a drop of the simulated Anti-Rh serum (clear) to the Rh well on each of the 4 slides. Replace the cap.
      9. Use a different toothpick to gently stir each sample of serum and blood for 30 seconds. Sticks should be used according to serum color (blue for anti-A, yellow for anti-B, white for anti-Rh). Remember to use a different stick for each well in each slide – avoid cross-contamination of the samples!
      10. Observe whether there is agglutination in the wells – you may need to tilt the slide back and forth to determine if clumping occurred. Carefully examine the thin films of liquid mixture in each of the wells. If a film remains uniform in appearance, there is no agglutination. If the sample appears granular, agglutination has occurred.
      11. Record the results and your observations in the data table on the opposite page.
      12. Determine the blood type of each individual using the data gathered about agglutination and record it in the table. Remember, if there’s clumping in a well, both the antigen & the antibody must be present. The antigen comes from the blood; the antibody comes from the serum. A positive agglutination reaction indicates blood type.

Data Table: Agglutination Reactions

Analysis: Answer the following questions.

1. Given the following antigen(s) found the red blood cells, give the corresponding blood antibody and the ABO blood type by filling in the table in your lab notebook:

1. For each of the given blood types, give the expected agglutination results when the blood is mixed with each antibody, by filling in the table in your lab notebook:

1. Why is it necessary to match the donor’s and the recipient’s blood before a transfusion is given?
2. What is the universal donor? __________ What is the universal recipient? ___________
3. What happens when the wrong blood is transfused?
4. What happens to red blood cells that are agglutinated?
5. What is the difference between an antigen and an antibody? Explain the function of each and where each is found in the blood.
6. What ultimately determines blood type? Explain the basis of blood types.
7. Explain how erythroblastosis fetalis may develop.
8. Under what conditions might a person with Rh– blood develop anti-Rh antibodies?
9. Why can Rh+ blood be given only once to a non-sensitized person who is Rh–?
10. If an Rh– person who is sensitive to Rh+ blood receives a transfusion of Rh+ blood, what is likely to happen to a donor’s cells in the recipient’s body?

LAB 12.1: Urinary System

Introduction: Excretion is the elimination of wastes from the body. This function ensures homeostasis. As cells use nutrients to maintain life, waste products are produced and many of these are toxic. If these substances are permitted to accumulate, they will disrupt homeostasis. Although several systems are involved in eliminating waste, the primary responsibility falls to the Urinary System. The kidney is the main organ that determines which substances will be retained and which will be excreted from the body in the form of urine. In addition to eliminating waste, the kidney helps control blood pressure and stimulates blood cell formation. In addition it activates Vitamin D.

Objectives Checklist:

• Identify and locate the following organs of the urinary system in both male and female models and fetal pigs: kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra.
• Define the three processes involved in the production of urine and describe what is eliminated or retained in each process.
• Explain the role of the urinary system in disposing of metabolic wastes.
• Explain the role of the urinary system in maintaining homeostasis.

Pre-lab: The student should read the following pages in the course materials and study guide and the appropriate pages in the lab manual and text (see Lab Syllabus). Describe the function of each of the structures in the excretory system.

In-Class Activities and Suggested Study Questions:

1. Identify and locate the following organs of the urinary system in both male and female models and fetal pigs: kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra.
2. Draw a diagram showing the location in the body of each of the structures in question 1.
3. Define the three processes involved in the production of urine and describe what is eliminated or retained in each process.
4. Explain the role of the urinary system in disposing of metabolic wastes and in maintaining homeostasis.
5. Critical thinking problem: A woman experiences severe headaches for several days. She visits her doctor who prescribes a series of tests relating to her cardiovascular system. In addition he orders tests on the kidneys. Speculate on why tests were ordered on the kidneys since they appear to have no direct relationship with blood circulation.

LAB 12.2: Nervous System – The Brain and Spinal Cord

Introduction:

Internal communication within the body is a vital function. It is responsible for coordinating and integrating various activities that involve all the body systems. The Nervous System, which is primarily responsible for communication, constantly receives and sends electrical messages via specialized cells, the neurons.

Anatomically the Nervous System is divided into the Central Nervous System (the brain and the spinal cord) and the Peripheral Nervous System (cranial, spinal, and autonomic fibers). The brain acts much like the hard drive of a computer that is constantly fed data and that interprets, integrates, processes, and stores all of this data. When a coordinated response is required, the brain also serves as the originator of messages. These messages are quickly dispatched to effectors (such as muscles and glands) in various parts of the body. Muscles move and glands secrete.

Objectives Checklist:

• Explain the function of the nervous system.
• Identify the structure and the function for the following parts of the brain: medulla oblongata, pons, cerebellum, pituitary gland (hypophysis), cerebrum, right hemisphere, left hemisphere, frontal lobe, parietal lobe, temporal lobe, occipital lobe, corpus callosum, thalamus, hypothalamus, olfactory bulb, optic nerve, optic chiasma, ventricles 1, 2, 3, and 4
• Identify the structure and the function for the following parts of the spinal cord: gray matter, dorsal horn, ventral horn, white matter, central canal, dorsal root of the spinal nerve, ventral root of the spinal nerve, spinal nerve
• Identify the parts and function of the neuron (see Lab 6.2)

Pre-lab: The student should read the following pages in the course materials and study guide and the appropriate pages in the lab manual and text (see Lab Syllabus). Describe the function of each structure in the neuron, brain, and spinal cord.

In-Class Activities:

1. Using the sheep’s brain and the human brain model, identify the structures of the brain.
2. Using the human model, identify the structures of the spinal cord.
3. Draw diagrams to illustrate (1) and (2).
4. Explain the function of the nervous system.
5. Identify the parts and function of the neuron.

Suggested Study Questions:

1. Contrast the functions of the four major lobes of the cerebrum.
2. Why can we say that some of the oldest cells in the body are neurons?
3. A man receives a severe blow to the lower posterior surface of the skull. He subsequently experiences an abnormal cardiac rhythm and an abnormal respiratory rate. Why?

LAB 13.1: Nervous System – The Sense Organs

Introduction: A blind person who could not feel, taste, smell, or hear would find it very difficult to function. Special sense organs are responsible for these functions. While the sense of touch is located over the entire body, the other sense organs are highly localized and concentrated in the head. The two most complex sense organs in terms of structure and function are the eye and the ear. In addition to being composed of many parts with each providing different functions, the ear & the eye contain receptor cells that are responsible for transduction, the conversion of the energy from an external stimulus into a neurochemical message. Upon stimulation of the receptor cells in the retina for instance, an electrical impulse is sent to the brain where all sensory interpretation takes place.

Objectives Checklist:

• Explain the functions of the sensory portion of the nervous system.
• Identify the different senses and their sensory cells.
• Identify structure and function for each of the following parts of the eye in the specimen from the sheep & the model: sclera (outermost layer), cornea, pupil, iris, lens, choroid layer (middle layer), vitreous humor, aqueous humor, retina (innermost layer), optic nerve
• Distinguish between the structures of the ear used for the sense of sound and those used for balance.
• Identify structure and function for each of the following in the model: pinna, auditory canal, tympanic membrane (ear drum), incus (anvil), malleus (hammer), stapes (stirrup), eustachian (auditory) tube, cochlea, vestibule, semicircular canals, Organ of Corti, auditory nerve

Pre-lab: The student should read the following pages in the course materials and study guide and the appropriate pages in the lab manual and text (see Lab Syllabus). Describe the function of each of the structures in the human eye and the human ear.

In-Class Activities: Complete the objectives above. Make sure to draw and label diagrams of all relevant organs and structures.

Critical thinking questions:

1. Sally has a throat infection that has been left untreated. In addition to complaining about soreness in the throat, she is having trouble hearing and she is feeling dizzy. Explain the cause of these symptoms.
2. A man suffers a severe blow to the posterior part of the head. While he experiences loss of vision, he reports that his eyes were not injured. Give a plausible explanation for these symptoms.
3. In which part of the ear does the amplitude of the pressure wave increase to its maximum (the greatest amplitude)?
   1. Outer ear
   2. Middle ear
   3. Inner ear
4. Why does the amplitude of the sound waves decrease in the cochlear canals at the Organ of Corti?