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Notes

table of contents
  1. Introduction
    1. In Search of Conga
    2. Overview of Chapters
    3. Notation and Terminology
    4. Rhythmic Archetypes
  2. Part 1. Building the Groove
    1. Chapter 1. Santiago before the Conga
      1. Carnival in Santiago
      2. The African presence: Cabildos de Nación
      3. Nineteenth Century Comparsas
      4. The Early Twentieth Century
    2. Chapter 2. Rival Grooves (c. 1910–1929): El Tivolí and Los Hoyos
      1. Sources
      2. c. 1913: La Conga del Tivolí's Golpe de Columbia
      3. c. 1914: Los Hoyos' Golpe Pilón
      4. The bokú salidor: Congo roots?
      5. The Haitian connection
      6. The corneta china: from China to Occidente to Oriente
      7. 1915–22: The completion of the “conga triangle”
      8. 1928: Matamoros: Representing Oriente (and El Tivolí?)
    3. Chapter 3. The Transitional Period (c. 1929–1939): Campanas, Tamboras and “Paan;” the Demise of La Conga del Tivolí
      1. Campanas: Building a Sonic Identity
      2. Nanano: Unsettling the Groove
      3. “Paan” in the Clave Matrix
      4. c. 1936–39: Los Hoyos' Groove Conquers Santiago; The Triangle Shifts
  3. Part 2. Nurturing the Tradition
    1. Chapter 4. The Model Groove
      1. Introduction
      2. Pilón and Requinto: A Sturdy Foundation
      3. Bells (Campanas, Llantas or Brake Drums): Reinforcing the Foundation
      4. Bokús: Balancing Reinforcement and Syncopation
      5. The Tambora: Shaking the foundation
      6. The model groove on Vinyl: the Panart Sessions
      7. The corneta china as guia: musical guide and lead singer
      8. “Standard Form” emerges
      9. Piquetes (combos or factions): local soundscapes within the conga
      10. The Comparsita: a hyperlocal mini-conga
      11. Conclusion
    2. Chapter 5. Conga Paso Franco: Heirs to El Tivolí
      1. Introduction
      2. Memory on display: Commemorating 1911
      3. The Paso Franco Sound: Pa' Guarachar
        1. Musicians of Paso Franco
        2. Coros
      4. Conclusion
    3. Chapter 6. La Conga De Los Hoyos: La Conga de Cuba
      1. Introduction
      2. El Foco: Community Memory on Display
      3. El Cocoyé invades and occupies Havana
      4. Los Hoyos' Groove: Inconfundible
      5. Anthems: Singing Identities
      6. La Epoca de Oro (Los Hoyos' Golden Age)
      7. Familias Congueristicas (Conga Families)
      8. Los Ases Del Ritmo (The Rhythm Aces): the Masters
      9. Conclusion: La Conga Madre
    4. Chapter 7. Conga San Agustín: Con el Tamarindo
      1. Introduction
      2. Los Millionarios (The Millionaires)
      3. The San Agustín Sound
      4. Los Ralladeros: creators of the San Agustín sound
      5. New Generations and Transition: Carlitín and Raulito
  4. Conclusion
  5. Glossary
  6. References
  7. List of Figures
  8. List of Video Examples
  9. List of Musical Examples

References

Primary Sources

Censuses

  1. Dirección General del Censo. Census of the Republic of Cuba. 1919.
  2. Olmsted, Victor H., et al. Censo de la República de Cuba bajo la administración provisional de los Estados Unidos. 1907. Oficina del censo de los Estados Unidos, 1908.

Interviews

  1. Armiñan Linares, Berta. Interview by author, video, 9 Jan. 2025.
  2. ---. Interview by author, video, 18 Dec. 2023.
  3. ---. Interview by author, Video, 21 July 2023.
  4. Bandera Bles, Félix. Interview by author, video, 15 Dec. 2023.
  5. Bandera Malet, Lázaro. Interview by author, audio, 19 Dec. 2025.
  6. ---. Interview by author, audio, 28 Apr. 2025.
  7. ---. Interview by author, audio, 21 Dec. 2023.
  8. ---. Interview by author, audio, 15 May 2022.
  9. Beltran Carvajal, Luis. Interview by author, 3 Mar. 2026.
  10. ---. Interview by author, video, 13 Dec. 2023.
  11. Cobas Marten, Andrés. Interview by author, audio, 26 Feb. 2026.
  12. ---. Interview by author, audio, 26 Apr. 2025.
  13. Fernandez Rodriguez, Luis. Interview by author, video, 17 Dec. 2023.
  14. Ferrera, Richard. Interview by author, audio, 25 Apr. 2025.
  15. Galis Riverí, Mililián. Interview by author, video, 11 Dec. 2023.
  16. ---. Interview by author, video, 24 July 2023.
  17. Guerra Pimentel, Carlos. Interview by author, Video, 8 Jan. 2025.
  18. Hechavarría Gonzalez, Adonis. Interview by author, video, 16 Jan. 2025.
  19. Herrera Nordet, Angel. Interview by author, video, 17 Jan. 2025.
  20. Hylton Hardy, Rublido. Interview by author, Video, 6 Jan. 2025.
  21. Ibarra Paisan, Vladimir. Interview by author, Video, 10 Jan. 2025.
  22. Mesa Ibarra, David. Interview by author, Video, 18 Dec. 2023.
  23. Milanés Romero, Jesús. Interview by author, video, 14 Dec. 2023.
  24. Palacios Duany, Juan. Interview by author, video, 12 Dec. 2023.
  25. Quiala Cisneros, Andrés. Interview by author, Video, 16 Jan. 2025.
  26. Solorzano Benítez, Joaquin. Interview by author, audio, 20 Mar. 2026.
  27. ---. Interview by author, audio, 2 Mar. 2026.
  28. ---. Interview by author, Video, 10 Jan. 2025.
  29. Valerino Giro, Walfrido. Interview by Author, video, 18 Jan. 2025.
  30. ---. Interview by Author, video, 10 Jan. 2025.
  31. ---. Interview by Author, video, 19 Dec. 2023.
  32. Vera Ferrer, Angel Luis “Bebo Isaac.” Interview by Author, video, 18 Dec. 2023.
  33. Zapata Romero, Noel. Interview by Author, Video, 17 Jan. 2025.

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  8. ---. “The Tumba Francesa and Tajona of Santiago de Cuba.” Cuban Festivals : A Century of Afro-Cuban Culture, 2001.
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  27. Gerstin, Julian. “Comparisons of African and Diasporic Rhythm: The Ewe, Cuba, and Martinique.” Analytical Approaches to World Musics, vol. 5, no. 2, Apr. 2017.
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  31. Herman, Nick. “Dale Tres Golpes.” #unsologolpe, 15 Dec. 2019, http://www.laconga.us/1/archives/12-2019.
  32. ---. “La Conga Santiaguera - A Quick Trip to Cuba’s ‘East Side.’” Percussive Notes, vol. 59, no. 6, Dec. 2021, pp. 55–58.
  33. Hernández Fusté, Yelanys. “La Conga de Los Hoyos arribó a sus 108 años.” Juventud Rebelde.https://www.juventudrebelde.cu/cultura/2010-07-31/la-conga-de-los-hoyos-arribo-a-sus-108-anos. Accessed 1 Mar. 2022.
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  38. Lapidus, Benjamin L. Origins of Cuban Music and Dance: Changüí. Scarecrow Press, 2008.
  39. Lapique, Zoila. “Aportes Franco-Haitianos a La Contradanza Cubana: Mitos y Realidades.” Panorama De La Música Popular Cubana, edited by Radamés Giro, Editorial Letras Cubanas, 1998, pp. 137–54.
  40. Lara González, Rafael. “Homenaje a la Conga de Paso Franco por su 110 aniversario.” La Jiribilla, https://www.lajiribilla.cu/homenaje-a-la-conga-de-paso-franco-por-su-110-aniversario/. Accessed 9 Jan. 2026.
  41. Larduet Luaces, Abelardo. Hacia una historia de la santería santiaguera y otras consideraciones. Editorial del Caribe, 2014.
  42. Locke, David. “Principles of Offbeat Timing and Cross-Rhythm in Southern Eve Dance Drumming.” Ethnomusicology, vol. 26, no. 2, 1982, pp. 217–217.
  43. López Jiménez, María Elena. “El penúltimo repique por Mafifa, una estampa de la cultura popular santiaguera.” tvsantiago. 11 Oct. 2018, https://www.tvsantiago.icrt.cu/2018/10/el-penultimo-repique-por-mafifa-una-estampa-de-la-cultura-popular-santiaguera/. Accessed 29 Apr. 2022.
  44. ---. “La Invasión de los Hoyos, homenaje a la epopeya mambisa.” tvsantiago. 11 July 2019, https://www.tvsantiago.icrt.cu/2019/07/la-invasion-de-los-hoyos-homenaje-a-la-epopeya-mambisa/. Accessed 29 Apr. 2022.
  45. ---. “Los Hoyos Más Allá de Su Conga: Herencia y Raíz-Parte de Nuestra Nacionalidad.” tvsantiago. https://www.tvsantiago.icrt.cu/2018/12/los-hoyos-mas-alla-de-su-conga-herencia-y-raiz-parte-de-nuestra-nacionalidad/. Accessed 30 Apr. 2022.
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Discography

  1. Bunnett, Jane. Alma de Santiago. Termidor-Musikverlag EfA-Medien, Vertrieb, 2001.
  2. Carnaval a Santiago de Cuba. Chant du Monde, 1961.
  3. Carnaval en Santiago: Carnaval de Cuba. Siboney, c. 1982.
  4. Carnaval in Cuba. Smithsonian Folkways Recordings, 1981.
  5. Chants et rythmes afro-cubains. CD, Arion, 1988.
  6. Conga de Los Hoyos. “Ases del ritmo en la calle.” Carnaval en Santiago: Carnaval de Cuba. Siboney, c. 1982.
  7. ---. Carnival Music Of Eastern Cuba. CD, WORLD AUDIO FOUNDATION, 2009.
  8. ---. “Con el cocoyé.” Carnaval en Santiago: Carnaval de Cuba. Siboney, c. 1982.
  9. ---. “Conga de Los Hoyos” [field recording]. Chants et rythmes afro-cubains. CD, Arion, 1988.
  10. ---. La Conga de Cuba. Egrem, 2021.
  11. Conga Paso Franco. “Paso franco al carnaval de tivolí.” Carnaval en Santiago: Carnaval de Cuba. Siboney, c. 1982.
  12. ---. “Sirena soy.” Carnaval en Santiago: Carnaval de Cuba. Siboney, c. 1982.
  13. Conga San Agustín. “Ambience de rue.” Carnaval a Santiago de Cuba. Chant du Monde, 1961.
  14. ---. “Con su pin, pin, pin.” Carnaval en Santiago: Carnaval de Cuba. Siboney, c. 1982.
  15. ---. “Oye niña.” Carnaval en Santiago: Carnaval de Cuba. Siboney, c. 1982.
  16. Conjunto Corneta China. “Conga en oriente.” Panart, c. 1950,
  17. ---. “Goza mi conga.” Panart, c. 1950.
  18. Cruz, Celia. “La danza del Cocoyé.” Seeco, 1952.
  19. Estrellas de Chocolate. “Aprenderé.” Maype, 1961.
  20. Los Hermanos Bravo. Hasta Santiago a pie. RCA Victor, 1960.
  21. “Lupemba.” Los Congos, Egrem, 1993.
  22. Rodríguez, Alfredo. “Para Francia flores y para Cuba también.” Cuba linda, Hannibal Records / Rykodisc, 1996.
  23. Santiago: Calles y Congas. Egrem, 1996.
  24. Septeto Matamoros. “Los carnavales de Oriente.” Victor, 1928.
  25. Sur Caribe. “Añoranza por la conga.” Credenciales, Egrem, 2005.

Videos

  1. “Cabildos y Tumbas Francesas En Santiago de Cuba.” Historia y Sus Protagonistas; 55, Tele Turquino, 2010.
  2. cineVillon. “3.800.000.000 Toques de Conga Los Hoyos.” YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lsPKzv94DKI. Accessed 30 Mar. 2026.
  3. ---. “How to Play Conga Santiaguera - El Toque de Los Hoyos.” 2016. YouTube, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CHBwg60FTyo.
  4. CREART: Ministerio de Cultura  de Cuba. “Videoclip de Estreno: CON CUBA NO TE METAS - Virulo.” 2020. YouTube, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XIt5idI8TR8.
  5. de Paula, Léo. “Congo de Ouro e Outros Congos.” 2021. YouTube, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6fSeW_gX-f0.
  6. D Ritmacuba. “Conga de Los Hoyos 1994 En France.” 2018. YouTube, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=trl_pzI_9WM.
  7. ---. “Conga de Los Hoyos En La Habana (1996).” 2019. YouTube, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_rt2X1CF7dk.
  8. ---. “Folkloyuma : Para Francia Flores. Para Nené.” 2012. YouTube, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V0yfvHWY8gU.
  9. ---. “Los Hoyos-1992 : Conga & Rumba Columbia.” 2013. YouTube, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IIPEdc9e-3Q.
  10. “Documental ‘Carnavales En Santiago.’” 2020. YouTube, https://youtube.com/watch?v=xbpfx6JYF4g.
  11. Herman, Nick. “Berta Armiñan Linares Speaks about and Demonstrates Comparsita.” 2019. YouTube, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cwAk4KDjG6w.
  12. ---. “Cantos (Songs): Bembé de Sao.” 2022. YouTube, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o0DLrNVTKAk.
  13. ---. “Rehearsal/Ensayo Conga Paso Franco June 2019.” 2020. YouTube, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DIStjSy1osM.
  14. Muñoz Barroso, Daniela. Mafifa. https://estudiostfilms.com/pelicula/mafifa/. Accessed 30 Mar. 2026.
  15. Sabourin O’Reilly, William. “LAZARO PAYS HOMAGE TO TENTEN.” 2022. YouTube, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gFHdpAAE_gc.
  16. ---. “TATA TIBURON.” 2022. YouTube, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jzcORTcTkCY.
  17. ---. “TENTEN HISTORIAN.” 2022. YouTube, https://www.youtube.com/watch?app=desktop&v=PksXkPDfGT4.
  18. ---. “The Poet (Ya No Me Dan Carne de Res).” 2022. YouTube, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ab5DL9LUILk.
  19. Televisión Santiago de Cuba. “Celebra Plaza Cultural Santiaguera Aniversario 110 de La Conga Paso Franco.” 2021. YouTube, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7xRPx1lwIG8.
  20. ---. “Documental Se llama Conga.” 2018. YouTube, https://youtube.com/watch?v=aisevxV5n6k.

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