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It usually takes me more than three weeks to prepare a good impromptu speech.

–Mark Twain

Being in the right does not depend on having a loud voice.

–Chinese Proverb

Getting Started

Mark Twain makes a valid point that presentations require preparation. If you have the luxury of time to prepare,

take full advantage of it. Speeches don’t always happen when or how we envision them. Preparation becomes

especially paramount when the element of unknown is present, forcing us to improvise. One mistake or misquote

can and will be quickly rebroadcast, creating lasting damage. Take full advantage of the time to prepare for

what you can anticipate, but also consider the element of surprise. In this chapter we discuss the planning and

preparation necessary to prepare an effective presentation. You will be judged on how well you present yourself,

so take the time when available to prepare.

Now that you are concerned with getting started and preparing a speech for work or class, let’s consider the first

step. It may be that you are part of a team developing a sales presentation, preparing to meet with a specific client

in a one-on-one meeting, or even setting up a teleconference. Your first response may be that a meeting is not a

speech, but your part of the conversation has a lot in common with a formal presentation. You need to prepare, you

need to organize your message, and you need to consider audience’s expectations, their familiarity with the topic,

and even individual word choices that may improve your effectiveness. Regardless whether your presentation is to

one individual (interpersonal) or many (group), it has as its foundation the act of communication. Communication

itself is a dynamic and complex process, and the degree to which you can prepare and present effectively across a

range of settings will enhance your success as a business communicator.

If you have been assigned a topic by the teacher or your supervisor, you may be able to go straight to the section

on narrowing your topic. If not, then the first part of this chapter will help you. This chapter will help you step by

step in preparing for your speech or oral presentation. By the time you have finished this chapter, you will have

chosen a topic for your speech, narrowed the topic, and analyzed the appropriateness of the topic for yourself as

well as the audience. From this basis, you will have formulated a general purpose statement and specific thesis

statement to further define the topic of your speech. Building on the general and specific purpose statements you

formulate, you will create an outline for your oral presentation.

Through this chapter, you will become more knowledgeable about the process of creating a speech and gain

confidence in your organizational abilities. Preparation and organization are two main areas that, when well

developed prior to an oral presentation, significantly contribute to reducing your level of speech anxiety. If you

are well prepared, you will be more relaxed when it is time to give your speech. Effective business communicators

have excellent communication skills that can be learned through experience and practice. In this chapter we will

work together to develop your skills in preparing clear and concise messages to reach your target audience.

References

Bremner, J., Haub, C., Lee, M., Mather, M., & Zuehlke, E. (2009, September). World population highlights: Key findings from PRB’s 2009 world population data sheet. Population Bulletin, 64(3). Retrieved from http://www.prb.org/pdf09/64.3highlights.pdf.

Rosenberg, M. (2009, October 15). Population growth rates and doubling time. About.com Guide. Retrieved from http://geography.about.com/od/populationgeography/a/populationgrow.htm.

10.1 Before You Choose a Topic

As you begin to think about choosing your topic, there are a few key factors to consider. These include the purpose

of the speech, its projected time length, the appropriateness of the topic for your audience, and your knowledge or

the amount of information you can access on the topic. Let’s examine each of these factors.

Determine the General and Specific Purpose

It is important for you to have a clear understanding of your purpose, as all the other factors depend on it. Here’s

a brief review of the five general purposes for speaking in public:

1. Speech to inform. Increase the audience’s knowledge, teach about a topic or issue, and share your expertise.

2. Speech to demonstrate. Show the audience how to use, operate, or do something.

3. Speech to persuade. Influence the audience by presenting arguments intended to change attitudes, beliefs, or values.

4. Speech to entertain. Amuse the audience by engaging them in a relatively light-hearted speech that may have a serious point or goal.

5. Ceremonial speech. Perform a ritual function, such as give a toast at a wedding reception or a eulogy at a funeral.

You should be able to choose one of these options. If you find that your speech may fall into more than

one category, you may need to get a better understanding of the assignment or goal. Starting out with a clear

understanding of why you are doing what you are supposed do will go a long way in helping you organize, focus,

prepare, and deliver your oral presentation.

Once you have determined your general purpose—or had it determined for you, if this is an assigned

speech—you will still need to write your specific purpose. What specifically are you going to inform, persuade,

demonstrate, or entertain your audience with? What type of ceremony is your speech intended for? A clear goal

makes it much easier to develop an effective speech. Try to write in just one sentence exactly what you are going to do.

Examples

To inform the audience about my favorite car, the Ford Mustang

To persuade the audience that global warming is a threat to the environment

Notice that each example includes two pieces of information. The first is the general purpose (to inform or to persuade) and the second is the specific subject you intend to talk about.

Can I Cover the Topic in Time?

Your next key consideration is the amount of time in which you intend to accomplish your purpose. Consider

the depth, scope, and amount of information available on the topic you have in mind. In business situations,

speeches or presentations vary greatly in length, but most often the speaker needs to get the message across as

quickly as possible—for example, in less than five minutes. If you are giving a speech in class, it will typically

be five to seven minutes; at most it may be up to ten minutes. In those ten minutes, it would be impossible to tell

your audience about the complete history of the Ford Mustang automobile. You could, however, tell them about

four key body style changes since 1965. If your topic is still too broad, narrow it down into something you can

reasonably cover in the time allotted. For example, focus on just the classic Mustangs, the individual differences

by year, and how to tell them apart.

You may have been assigned a persuasive speech topic, linking global warming to business, but have you been

given enough time to present a thorough speech on why human growth and consumption is clearly linked to global

warming? Are you supposed to discuss “green” strategies of energy conservation in business, for example? The

topic of global warming is quite complex, and by definition involves a great deal of information, debate over

interpretations of data, and analysis on the diverse global impacts. Rather than try to explore the chemistry, the

corporate debates, or the current government activities that may be involved, you can consider how visual aids

may make the speech vivid for the audience. You might decide to focus on three clear examples of global warming

to capture your audience’s attention and move them closer to your stated position: “green” and energy-saving

strategies are good for business.

Perhaps you’ll start with a brownie on a plate with a big scoop of ice cream on top, asking your audience what

will happen when the ice cream melts. They will probably predict that the melted ice cream will spread out over

the plate in a puddle, becoming a deeper puddle as the ice cream continues to melt. Next, you might display a

chart showing that globally, temperatures have risen, followed by a map of the islands that have lost beaches due

to rising tides. To explain how this had happened, you may show two pictures of Antarctica—one taken in 1993

and the other in 2003, after it lost over 15 percent of its total mass as the Ross Ice Shelf melted, cracked, and

broke off from the continent. You may then make a transition to what happens when water evaporates as it goes

into the atmosphere. Show a picture of the hole in the ozone over Chile and much of South America, and hold

up a bottle of sunscreen, saying that even SPF 45 isn’t strong enough to protect you. Finally, you may show a

pie graph that illustrates that customers are aware of the environmental changes and the extent of their purchase

decision is based on the perception of a product’s “green” features or support of related initiatives. In just a few

minutes, you’ve given seven visual examples to support your central position and meet your stated purpose.

Will My Topic Be Interesting to My Audience?

Remember that communication is a two-way process; even if you are the only one speaking, the audience is an essential part of your speech. Put yourself in their place and imagine how to make your topic relevant for them.

What information will they actually use once your speech is over?

For example, if you are speaking to a group of auto mechanics who specialize in repairing and maintaining

classic cars, it might make sense to inform them about the body features of the Mustang, but they may already

be quite knowledgeable about these features. If you represent a new rust treatment product used in the restoration

process, they may be more interested in how it works than any specific model of car. However, if your audience

belong to a general group of students or would-be car buyers, it would be more useful to inform them about how

to buy a classic car and what to look for. General issues of rust may be more relevant, and can still be clearly

linked to your new rust treatment product.

For a persuasive speech, in addition to considering the audience’s interests, you will also want to gauge their

attitudes and beliefs. If you are speaking about global warming to a group of scientists, you can probably assume

that they are familiar with the basic facts of melting glaciers, rising sea levels, and ozone depletion. In that case,

you might want to focus on something more specific, such as strategies for reducing greenhouse gases that can

be implemented by business and industry. Your goal might be to persuade this audience to advocate for such

strategies, and support or even endorse the gradual implementation of the cost- and energy-saving methods that

may not solve all the problems at once, but serve as an important first step.

In contrast, for a general audience, you may anticipate skepticism that global warming is even occurring, or

that it poses any threat to the environment. Some audience members may question the cost savings, while others

may assert that the steps are not nearly enough to make a difference. The clear, visual examples described above

will help get your point across, but if you are also prepared to answer questions—for example, “If the earth is

heating up, why has it been so cold here lately?” or “Isn’t this just part of a warming and cooling cycle that’s

been happening for millions of years?”—you may make your speech ultimately more effective. By asking your

listeners to consider what other signs they can observe that global warming is occurring, you might highlight a

way for them to apply your speech beyond the classroom setting. By taking small steps as you introduce your

assertions, rather than advocating a complete overhaul of the system or even revolution, you will more effectively

engage a larger percentage of your audience.

How Much Information about My Topic Is Readily Available?

For a short speech, especially if it is a speech to entertain, you may be able to rely completely on your knowledge

and ideas. But in most cases you will need to gather information so that you can make your speech interesting by

telling the audience things they don’t already know. Try to choose a topic that can be researched in your college

or university libraries. You may need to do some initial checking of sources to be sure the material is available.

Putting It All Together

When you have determined your general purpose, the amount of material appropriate to the time allowed for

your speech, and the appropriateness for your audience, then you should be well on your way to identifying the

topic for your speech. As a double-check, you should be able to state your specific purpose in one sentence. For

example, the specific purpose of our “Classic Cars” speech could be stated as, “By the end of my speech, I want my audience to be more informed about the three ways in which they can determine whether a classic car is a rustbucket or diamond in the rough, and be aware of one product solution.”

10.2 Choosing a Topic

Now that you have a clear idea of your general and specific purpose, the allotted time, your audience’s

expectations, and the amount of information available, you are ready to commit to a topic. We have several

strategies you can use to help select and narrow the topic appropriately.

Know Yourself and Your Audience

The first strategy is to identify an area of knowledge or an issue that deeply interests you. If you have not already

completed the first of the Note 10.1 “Introductory Exercises” for this chapter, please work with it, identifying as

many activities, areas of interest, places you’ve traveled to, and things you find interesting as possible. Once you

have completed the exercise, identify three broad subject areas where you have some knowledge or experience

and consider at least one link to business and industry for each area. Talking about what you know will make

you a more credibility speaker but it must clearly connect with your employer’s goals for your presentation. If,

for example, you like doing a scrapbook, what kind of glue do you prefer and why? That may make for a natural

speech topic that calls on your previous experience while requiring you to learn more about the glue and its

properties. You may need to compare and contrast several types of glues as part of your preparation. Your in-depth

awareness of scrapbooking and glue as a necessary ingredient will make you a more credible speaker.

In the first of the Note 10.1 “Introductory Exercises” for this chapter, you were asked to choose three questions

from the list and then survey people you know to find out which of the three they prefer to hear about. Make sure

you keep score by writing down factors like age, gender, and any other elements you think your audience may

have in common. This exercise serves to reinforce the idea of being audience-centered, or tailoring your message

to your specific audience. Our third of the Note 10.1 “Introductory Exercises” for this chapter should highlight

that our perception of the world is not always accurate, and there is no substitute for thorough, objective research

when preparing a speech. The more you know, about yourself and your audience, the better you can prepare to

meet their needs and accomplish your goals as a speaker.

You have now utilized the Note 10.1 “Introductory Exercises” to help identify some broad topic areas that

might work for you. If you find the topic interesting, your enthusiasm will show and your audience will become

interested, too. Next, you will want to decide which of these areas would work best for your speech, and how to

narrow it down.

Saving Time

Here are some strategies you can use to save yourself time in selecting a speech topic.

First, consider the information you already have close at hand. Do you already have a project you are working

on, perhaps in another course? What are you currently studying in your other classes? What topics do you want

to know more about? Which issues or aspects initially drew you to this topic or area? Chances are that whatever

piqued your interest the first time will also get your audience interested.

Next, conduct a search (online, in the library, or interview people you know) in your subject area to get an

overview of the subject. Explore topics, issues, places, or people that fascinate you.

Appeal, Appropriateness, and Ability

These are three main factors to consider when choosing a topic. All three factors are related to one another, but by

systematically focusing on each one you will help address the strengths and weaknesses of your chosen topic.

Appeal involves the attractive power of arousing a sympathetic, stimulated response from the audience. Your audience will have expectations of you as a speaker and of your purpose for speaking. We all tend to seek novelty and find interesting, attractive, or appealing, or something that is not part of everyday life. A good example is the melting ice cream used in the speech on global warming. The elements are nothing new. We’ve all seen plates, brownies, and ice cream before, but how many of us have seen a speaker use them together to symbolize the melting ice caps associated with global warming? There is an inherent novelty present when we adapt something from its original purpose in order to make it appealing. You will need to consider an appealing way to start your speech, and will look for ways throughout your speech to reaffirm that appeal to the audience. When considering

a topic, also think about the visual or auditory images that come to mind, or how you might represent it to an audience in ways other than your words. This can guide you as you proceed to select your topic, thinking about what you can make appealing to your audience.

It also follows that appeal applies to the speaker as well as the audience. You may find the prospect of

discussing global warming not very interesting, and if you feel this way, it will come through in your speech. You

need to be attracted, interested or find your topic appealing in order to convey this appeal to your audience. Find

something that catches your interest, and that same spark is what you will cultivate to develop ways to stimulate

the spark of curiosity in your audience.

Appropriateness involves a topic that is especially suitable or compatible with your audience’s interest,

expectations, norms, or customs. Everyone will have expectations about roles and outcomes associated with your

speech. Some may be looking for information, while others may already know something about your topic and

want to learn more. You will need to reach both groups within the audience. As we saw earlier in the Ford Mustang

example, a highly technical speech may lose the more novice members of your audience.

Appropriateness is important because some topics do not work as well in a classroom setting as others. Will

everyone find a new rust treatment product interesting? Will everyone find a car speech interesting? Whether you

are in the classroom or business office setting, consider your audience and the appropriateness of your topic.

Regardless where you give a speech, you should always choose topics that will not promote harmful or illegal

actions. It is also important to consider whether your topic might offend members of the audience. If this is

a possibility, can you find a way to present the topic that will minimize offense? Similarly, if your topic is controversial and you know that your audience has strong feelings about it, consider how you can convey your

message without alienating or antagonizing your listeners. Finally, it is usually wise to avoid topics, which the

audience already knows a lot about.

Ability involves the natural aptitude or acquired proficiency to be able to perform. If you have a lot of prior information on flying, gained over years of experience being at the controls of an aircraft, you may have a natural aptitude and knowledge base to use to your advantage. If, however, you’ve never flown before, you may need to gather information and go visit an airport to be able to approach a proficient level of understanding to discuss the topic.

In addition to your ability to draw on your natural strengths, you’ll also want to consider your ability to research

a topic where you are located. If you want to develop a speech on a particular topic but you find information

hard to come by, this will make your job even harder and could possibly have a detrimental impact on your

speech. You may find that two similar topics interest you but your ability to gather information from more diverse

sources, from places that are more readily available, or from your background and experience make one topic

more attractive than the other.

Consider topics that are,

• new,

• possibly controversial,

• clear,

• supported by information you can find in outside sources,

• interesting to you.

Individual course guidelines vary, so make sure that your instructor approves your topic, and that your topic

is appropriate for your audience. At some colleges and universities, broad topics are designated as part of the

curriculum including, for example, environment, diversity, and technology. In your class, you may be challenged

to link any of those topics to business, and to prepare an informative or persuasive speech. Some colleges and

university instructors may also encourage you not to choose topics that have been done repeatedly over the years,

like abortion or the death penalty, unless you can connect the issue to a current event or new perspective. Don’t

avoid all controversial topics, as they often intrigue your audience and help maintain interest. Just make sure to

consider the pre-existing attitudes of your audience when attempting to create an effective, engaging speech.

In a business setting, you will rarely be given complete freedom to choose your topic. You may even have a

script and visual aids prepared in advance. In the real world the luxury of time for preparation and topic selection

are rare, but in a classroom setting you are often given more of an opportunity to choose. That choice should not

be taken lightly, and should be viewed as an opportunity. The classroom is a training ground, and your freedom to

explore and experiment is designed to build skills and strengths. When you join an employer, you will be asked to

prepare a presentation as part of the job; more often than not, there are clear guidelines on what is acceptable and

your professionalism is expected.

Use Your Self-Inventory

Choosing a topic can be difficult, but your self-inventory of things you already know should get you started. By

doing a little exploring, you can often help yourself come up with several possible topics. The topic itself will

not exclusively make a “good” or “bad” speech. How you develop that topic and discuss its points and issues,

however, will make a significant impact. Before moving on to the next step in this chapter, make sure you have a

topic in which you are relatively confident. If you have trouble selecting a topic, take your self-inventory to your

instructor or librarian. They may be able to help guide you to a topic that works for you.

Here are some examples to get you started. Let’s say your self-inventory response from the first of the Note

10.1 “Introductory Exercises” for this chapter to the question, “What do you play or do for fun?” is to play

sports, and it also happens to be one way you are earning your way through school on a scholarship. You could

consider a topic like the history of your sport for an informative speech, or how to tell the difference between

three classic types of pitches in baseball, and which you can involve an audience member for a demonstrative

speech. You could also consider stereotypes of athletes in college and some of the common misperceptions and

persuade the audience that athletes often handle the issues of time management well, can get good grades (provide

statistics as evidence and ask a coach for examples), and are actively developing both their minds and their bodies

through participation in sports. You might even take on a topic of why basketball is more interesting than football,

or vice versa. You might decide instead to entertain the audience, and tell stories associated with game travel, buses breaking down, or road trips gone bad. Finally, you might put together a ceremonial speech honoring an Academic All-American player, recognizing his or her excellence both in academics and in athletics.

If you are not a student athlete, but a college student, you may have answered that same question by indicating

you are taking classes for a degree as well as for fun. You could put together an informative speech on the

steps involved in applying for financial aid, or produce a demonstrative speech on how to gather the information

required and complete the application process. You might persuade the audience to apply for financial aid, even if

they think they might not be eligible, and cover the options within the program. You might entertain the audience

with funny stories about the challenges of registering for classes, completing financial aid, and completing the

classes you need to graduate. (There is always just one more class, right?) You might also draft a ceremonial

speech as if you were presenting the commencement speech at your graduation.

These two scenarios should stimulate some ideas, or you might already have a clear purpose and topic in mind.

It’s important to be clear on both your purpose and your topic as you begin to put pencil to paper, or keystroke to

computer, and begin the process of writing your general purpose and thesis statements.

Writing Your Thesis Statement

Earlier in the chapter you wrote a statement expressing the general and specific purpose of your speech. Now

that you have explored further and identified a definite topic, it’s time to write a thesis statement. This thesis

statements should be a short, specific sentence capturing the central idea of your speech. Steven Beebe and Susan

Beebe recommends five guiding principles when considering your thesis statement. The thesis statement should

1. be a declarative statement;

2. be a complete sentence;

3. use specific language, not vague generalities;

4. be a single idea;

5. reflect consideration of the audience.

For example, if you plan to inform a general audience about the Ford Mustang, a good thesis statement might be,

“Ford produced five ‘generations’ of the Mustang, each with a distinctive body style that audience members can

learn to recognize.” If you plan to persuade a group of investors that a beachfront property could be threatened by

rising sea levels, a good thesis statement might be, “Sea levels are predicted to rise because of global warming,

and if these predictions are correct, the beachfront property my audience is considering investing in may be

threatened.”

The thesis statement is key to the success of your speech. If your audience has to work to find out what exactly

you are talking about, or what your stated purpose or goal is, they will be less likely to listen, be impacted, or recall

your speech. By stating your point clearly in your introduction, and then referring back to it during your speech,

you promote the cognitive strategies of emphasis, clarity, and conciseness, and help your audience to listen while

meeting the expectations of the rhetorical context.

References

Beebe, S. [Steven], & Beebe, S. [Susan]. (1997). Public speaking: An audience-centered approach (3rd ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

10.3 Finding Resources

Now that you know your general purpose, have committed to a topic, and have written your thesis statement, it’s

time to gather information. If you have chosen the topic from your list, you probably already know a lot about it.

But in most cases you will still need information from sources other than yourself, to establish credibility, create

a more comprehensive speech, and to make sure no important aspect of your topic is left out.

Your time is valuable and you’ll need to plan ahead to avoid a rushed frenzy right before your due date. You’ll

feel more confident if you budget your time wisely and give yourself an opportunity to reflect on what you have

prepared, and this will help you feel more relaxed as you deliver your speech, reducing your speech anxiety.

Narrow Your Topic and Focus on Key Points

By now you have developed an idea of your topic, but even with your purpose and thesis statement, you may

still have a broad subject that will be a challenge to cover within the allotted time. You might want to revisit your

purpose and thesis statement and ask yourself: how specific is my topic? If flying an airplane is your topic area

and you are going to inform your audience on the experience, discuss the history and basic equipment, and cover

the basic requirements necessary to go on your first flight. Plus, look at reference information on where your

audience could go locally to take flying lessons, you might find that five to seven minutes simply is not enough

time. Rather than stating that you need more time, or that you’ll just rush through it, consider your audience

and what they might want to learn. How can you narrow your topic to better consider their needs? As you edit

your topic, considering what is essential information and what can be cut, you’ll come to focus on the key points

naturally and reduce the pressure on yourself to cover too much information in a short amount of time.

If you haven’t presented many speeches, five to seven minutes may seem like an eternity, but when you are in

front of the audience, the time will pass quickly. Consider how you feel about the areas of your speech and you’ll

soon see how it could easily turn into an hour-long presentation. You need to work within the time limits, and

show your audience respect as you stay within them, recognizing that they too will be presenting speeches in the

same time frame. For yourself and your audience, narrow your topic to just the key points. Perhaps you will begin

with a description and a visual image of your first flight, followed by a list of the basic equipment and training

needed. Finally, a reference to local flying schools may help you define your speech. While the history of flying

may be fascinating, and may serve as a topic in itself for another speech, it would add too much information to

this particular brief speech.

As you begin this process, keep an open mind for the reference materials available. The access to information

on the Internet is amazing, but not all the information has equal value. Try not to just go with the first three

examples, Web sites or sources you run across but instead skim, rather than read in-depth, the information at that

relates to your topic and what you find of interest. Look for abstracts, or brief summaries of information, before

you commit time to reading an article all the way through. Look for indexes to identify key terms you might want

to cover before eliminating them as you narrow your topic. Take notes as you search or bookmark pages with

you Web browser in order to go back to a site or source that at first you passed over, but now think may make

a relevant contribution to your speech. Consider the source and their credibility. While a high school Web page

assignment may prove interesting, the link to the research in the field, the author of a study, or a university source

may provide much credible information. Once you have identified sources you consider to be valuable, you will

assemble the information and key points needed to make your speech effective much better.

Plan Your Search for Information

When preparing a speech, it is important to gather information from books, magazines, newspapers, electronic

sources, and interviews from people who know a lot about your topic. With information from a variety of

sources, you will have many possibilities when it comes to developing your speech. If you keep in mind the key

information you need to support your thesis, you will save yourself time, as you can choose and edit information

as you go along. Also, consider your other responsibilities in other classes or with work and family. You’ll have

to schedule time for your investigation and make it a priority, but it will necessarily compete with other priorities.

Perhaps scheduling for yourself time in the library, a visit to the local flight school to interview a flight instructor,

and some Internet search time in the evenings may help you create a to-do list that you can use to structure

your research. Remember that this investigation will be more fun if your topic is one in which you are actually

interested.

Before you go to the library, look over your information sources. Do you read a magazine that relates to the

topic? Did you read a recent news article that might be relevant? Is there a book, CD-ROM, or music that has

information you can use? Think of what you want your audience to know, and how you could show it to them.

Perhaps cover art from a CD, or line from a poem may make an important contribution to your speech. You might

even know someone who has experience in the area you want to research.

As you begin to investigate your topic, make sure you consider several sides of an issue. Let’s say you are going

to make an informative speech at a town council meeting about the recent history of commuter rail service in your

town. At first, you may have looked at two sides, rail versus private cars. Automobile dealers, oil companies, and

individual drivers wanted the flexibility of travel by car, while rail advocates argued that commuter trains would

lower costs and energy consumption. If you take another look, you see that several other perspectives also have

bearing on this issue. Many workers commuted by bus prior to the railroad, so the bus companies would not want

the competition. Property owners objected to the noise of trains and the issue of eminent domain (i.e., taking of

private property by the government). To serve several towns that are separated by open space, the rail lines cut

through wildlife habitat and migration corridors. We now have five perspectives to the central issue, which makes

the topic all the more interesting.

Make sure, as you start your investigation for information, that you always question the credibility of the

information. Sources may have no review by peers or editor, and the information may be misleading, biased, or

even false. Be a wise information consumer.

Ethics, Content Selection, and Avoiding Plagiarism

An aspect of sifting and sorting information involves how you will ethically present your material. You may be

tempted to omit information that may be perceived as negative or may not be well received. For example, you may

be tempted to omit mention of several train accidents that have occurred, or of the fact that train fares have risen as

service has been cut back. If your purpose is to inform, you owe it to your audience to give an honest presentation

of the available facts. By omitting information, you are not presenting an accurate picture, and may mislead your

audience. Even if your purpose is to persuade, omitting the opposing points will present a one-sided presentation.

The audience will naturally consider what you are not telling them as well as what you are presenting, and will

raise questions. Instead, consider your responsibility as a speaker to present all the information you understand to

be complete, and do it honestly and ethically.

As another example, suppose you work for a swimming pool construction company and are speaking to inform

a neighborhood group about pool safety. You have photos of pools you have worked on, but they aren’t very

exciting. There are many more glamorous swimming pool photos on free Internet sites. Who can really tell if

the pool in the picture is yours or not? Furthermore, the “Terms of Use” on the site state that photos may be

downloaded for personal use. Wouldn’t this speech to inform be considered personal use? In fact, it probably

would not, even if your informative speech is not a direct sales pitch. And even if you don’t actually tell

your audience, “My company built this pool,” it would be reasonable for them to assume you did unless you

specifically tell them otherwise.

As a student, you are no doubt already aware that failing to cite sources or including a sentence or paragraph

you copied from a blog on the Internet for an English essay is called plagiarism and is grounds for an F on

your paper. At many schools, plagiarism can even be grounds for expulsion. Similarly, in your professional life

it behooves you to be truthful with your audience and give credit where credit is due for several reasons. First,

misrepresenting your employer’s work could be illegal under statutes related to fraud; it could put not only your

job but also your employer’s contractor license in jeopardy. Second, someone in your audience could recognize

one of the photos (after all, they can browse the Internet as easily as you can) and embarrass you by pointing it

out during your presentation. Third, by using photos that display your company’s actual work you will feel more

confident, reducing your speech anxiety. You have a responsibility to your audience and engaging in plagiarism

fails in that responsibility.

Staying Organized

Before you start browsing on your computer, go to the library, or make the trip for an interview, make sure you

have designated a space where you can keep all your materials in one place. Decide on a name for the project

and use it to set up a subdirectory in your computer as well as a physical receptacle, such as a cardboard box or a

manila folder.

As you gather information online, open a new document in whatever writing program you use and save it as

“Sources.” Every time you find information that may prove useful, copy the Web address or reference/citation

information and paste it into your document. If you are gathering information from books or periodicals, use one

sheet of paper as your “Sources” document. This will save you a lot of time later when you are polishing your

speech.

Plan to use your time effectively. What information do you hope to find in the library? Make a list. Try to

combine tasks and get your investigation completed efficiently. Go to the library once with a list, rather than three

times without one. Ask the research librarian for assistance in grouping information and where to find it.

As you search through articles, books, Web sites, and images for your presentation, consider how each element

relates specifically to the key points in your speech. Don’t just look for the first citation or reference that fits

your list. Rushing through the research process can result in leaving out key areas of support or illustration in

your speech, an outcome you may not be happy with. Instead, enjoy the fun of searching for material for your

speech—but be aware that it is easy for your list under each key point to grow and grow with “must include”

information. As we discussed earlier, narrowing your topic is a key strategy in crafting a good speech. Try not to

“commit” to information until you have gathered more than you need, then go back and choose the most relevant

and most interesting facts, quotations, and visual aids.

You might think of this as the “accordion phase” of preparing your speech, as the amount of material first gets

bigger and then smaller. You’ll feel a sense of loss as you edit and come to realize that your time frame simply

does not allow for all the great information you found—but remember that nobody else will know what didn’t go

into your speech, they will just appreciate the good material you did choose. As you sift through information, look

for the promising, effective elements to include and omit the rest. In your English class, you often need to edit and

revise a paper to produce a rough draft before your final draft. This process parallels the production of a rough

draft. By taking notes with your key point in mind, you’ll begin to see your speech come together.

Searching for Information on the Internet

Finding information on the Internet or in electronic databases can decrease your search time, but you will still

need to budget time to accomplish the tasks associated with reviewing, selecting, interpreting, and incorporating

information to your particular use.

The World Wide Web is an amazing source of information, but for that very reason, it is difficult to get

information you actually need. Let’s look at two issues that can make searching online easier: where and how to

search for information.

Knowing where to go for information is as important as knowing key words and concepts related to your topic.

Do you need general information? Do you need to survey what’s available quickly? Do you prefer searching only

reviewed sites? Is your topic education-related? Depending on your answer, you may want to consider where to

start your search.

At the end of this chapter under “Additional Resources,” you will find a list of many Web sites that may be useful for public speaking research.

Evaluating Your Sources

It is important to be aware of how much online information is incomplete, outdated, misleading, or downright

false. Anyone can put up a Web site, and once it is up the owner may or may not enter updates or corrections on a regular basis. Anyone can write a blog on any subject, whether or not that person actually knows much about that subject. Anyone who wishes to contribute to a Wikipedia article can do so—although the postings are moderated by editors who have to register and submit their qualifications. In the United States, the First Amendment to the Constitution guarantees freedom of expression. This freedom is restricted by laws against libel (false accusations against a person) and indecency, especially child pornography, but those laws can be difficult to enforce. It is always important to look beyond the surface of a site to who sponsors it, where the information displayed came from, and whether the site owner has a certain agenda.

In gathering information for your speech, you will want to draw on reputable, reliable sources—printed ones as

well as electronic ones—because they reflect on the credibility of the message, and the messenger. Analyzing and

assessing information is an important skill in speech preparation, and here are six main points to consider when

evaluating a document, presentation, or similar source of information (Paul, R., and Elder, L., 2007). In general,

documents that represent quality reasoning have

• a clearly articulated purpose and goal;

• a question, problem, or issue to address;

• information, data, and evidence that is clearly relevant to the stated purpose and goals;

• inferences or interpretations that lead to conclusions based on the presented information, data, and evidence;

• a frame of reference or point of view that is clearly articulated;

• assumptions, concepts, and ideas that are clearly articulated

An additional question to ask is how credible the source is. This question can be hard to answer even with years

of training and expertise. Academic researchers have been trained in the objective, impartial use of the scientific

method to determine validity and reliability. But as research is increasingly dependent on funding, and funding

often brings specific points of view and agendas with it, pure research can be—and has been—compromised. You

can no longer simply assume that “studies show” something without finding out who conducted the study, how it

was conducted, and who funded the effort. This may sound like a lot of investigation and present quite a challenge,

but again it is worth the effort.

Information literacy is an essential skill set in the process of speech preparation. As you learn to spot key

signs of information that will not serve to enhance your credibility and contribute to your presentation, you can

increase your effectiveness as you research and analyze your resources. For example, suppose you are preparing

an informative speech on safety in the workplace. You might come upon a site owned by a consulting company

that specializes in safety analysis. The site might give many statistics, illustrating the frequency of on-the-job

accidents, repetitive motion injuries, workplace violence, and so on. But the sources of these percentage figures

may not be credited. As an intelligent researcher, you need to ask yourself whether the consulting company that

owns the site performed its own research to get these numbers. Most likely it did not—so why are the sources

not cited? Moreover, such a site would unlikely mention any free workplace safety resources available and free

from sources such as the U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). Less biased sources of

information would be the American Management Association, the U.S. Department of Labor, and other not-forprofit

organizations that study workplace safety.

The Internet also encompasses thousands of interactive sites where readers can ask and answer questions. Some

sites, like Askville by Amazon.com, WikiAnswers, and Yahoo! Answers, are open to almost any topic. Others, like ParentingQuestions and WebMD, deal with specific topics. Chat rooms on bridal Web sites allow couples

who are planning a wedding to share advice and compare prices for gowns, florists, caterers, and so on. Reader

comment sites like Newsvine facilitate discussions about current events. Customer reviews are available for just

about everything imaginable, from hotels and restaurants to personal care products, home improvement products,

and sports equipment. These contributors are not experts, nor do they pretend to be. Some may have extreme

opinions that are not based in reality. Then, too, it is always possible for a vendor to “plant” favorable customer

reviews on the Internet to make its product look good. Although the “terms of use,” which contributors must

agree to usually forbid the posting of advertisements, profanity, or personal attacks, some sites do a better job than

others in monitoring and deleting such material. Nevertheless, if your speech research involves finding out how

the “average person” feels about an issue in the news, or whether a new type of home exercise device really works

as advertised, these comment and customer review sites can be very useful indeed.

It may seem like it’s a hard work to assess your sources, to make sure your information is accurate and truthful,

but the effort is worth it. Business and industry rely on reputation and trust, just as we individuals do, in order to

maintain healthy relationships. Your speech is an important part of that reputation and interaction.

Compiling Your Information

When you have investigated and narrowed your topic, it’s time to compile your information. Compiling involves

composing your speech out of materials from the documents and other sources you have collected. This process

has seven major steps, adapted from a model by Anderson, Anderson and Williams: sensitivity, exposure,

assimilation and accommodation, incubation, incorporation, production and revision (Andrews, P., Andrews, J.,

and Williams, G., 1999).

Sensitivity refers to your capacity to respond to stimulation, be excited, be responsive, or be susceptible to new

information. This starts with your self-inventory of what you are interested or involved in as you did in the first

of the Note 10.1 “Introductory Exercises” for this chapter. If you are intrigued by a topic or area of interest, your

enthusiasm will carry through to your speech and make it more stimulating for your audience. You may not have

considered, or even noticed, elements or ideas associated with your topic, but now that you have begun the process

of investigation, you see them everywhere. For example, have you ever heard someone say a word or phrase that

you never heard before, but now that you are familiar with it, you hear it everywhere? This same principle applies

to your sensitivity to ideas related to your topic. You’ll notice information and it will help you as you develop

your awareness of your topic and the many directions you could take the speech. Cognitive psychologist use the

term “priming” to refer to this excited state of awareness (Yaniv, I., and Meyer, D., 1987).

Exposure involves your condition of being presented views, ideas, experiences, or made known to you through

direct experience. If you are thinking of giving an informative speech on flying an airplane but have never flown

before, your level of exposure may be low. Your level of awareness may be high, however, in terms of the

importance of security on commercial airlines after reading about, watching on television, or hearing on the radio

stories after the events of September 11, 2001. You may decide to expose yourself to more information through

a range of sources as you investigate the topic of airline security. The more you become exposed to the issues,

processes and goals of your topic, the more likely you are to see areas of interest, think of new ideas that might fit

in your speech, and form patterns of awareness you did not perceive previously.

Assimilation and accommodation refers to the process by which you integrate (assimilate) new ideas into your

thinking patterns, and adopt (accommodate) or filter out new sources of information as they relate to your goal.

You may have had preconceived notions or ideas about airline security before you began your investigation, but

new information has changed the way you view your topic. You might also find issues (e.g., right to privacy)

that may be points of conflict with your beliefs as you review information. This stage is important to the overall

process of developing your topic and takes time. You need time to be able to contemplate, review, and reflect on

how the new information fits or fails to connect clearly to your chosen topic.

Incubation is the process by which you cause an idea or ideas to develop in your mind. This might not happen

all at once, and you might spend time thinking about the new information, directions, or ways you might develop

or focus your topic. Consider the meaning of the word “incubation” as it relates to chickens and eggs. An egg may

look ready to hatch as soon as the hen lays it, but it needs time and a warm environment to develop. You might

have an idea but need to create an environment for it to develop. This might involve further investigation and

exploration, or it may involve removing yourself from active research to “digest” what you have already learned.

If you feel “stuck” on an idea or perceive an inability to move on in the development of your ideas or topic, giving

it a rest may be the best course of action. You may also find that just when you least expect it, an idea, fully

formed, flashes into your mind and you ask yourself, “Why didn’t I see that before?” Before the idea escapes you,

write it down and make sure you can refer to it later.

Incorporation refers to the process by which you bring the information into a whole or complete topic. By now

you have investigated, chosen some information over others, and have started to see how the pieces will come

together. Your perceptions of how the elements come together will form the basis for the organization of your

speech. It will contribute to the logic of your message and help you produce a coherent, organized speech that

your audience can follow clearly.

Production involves the act of creating your speech from the elements you have gathered. You may start to

consider what comes first, what goes last, and how you will link your ideas and examples together. You may find

that you need additional information, and can go back to your notes that you taken to find the source quickly and

easily. You may also start to communicate with friends, sharing some of the elements or even practicing the first

drafts of your speech, learning where the connections are clear and where they need work.

Revision is the process by which you look over your speech again in order to correct or improve it. You

will notice elements that need further investigation, development, or additional examples and visual aids as your

produce your speech. This is an important step to the overall production of your speech, much like revising an

essay for an English course. The first time you said, thought, or wrote something it may have made sense to you,

but upon reflection and after trying an idea out, you need it to be revised in order to work effectively as part of

your speech. You may revisit the place in which you started, and start all speeches, by reconsidering the rhetorical

situation and see if what you have produces is in line with the expectations of the audience. Your awareness of

the content, audience, and purpose of the rhetorical situation will guide you through the revision process and

contribute to the production of a more effective speech.

References

Andrews, P., Andrews, J., & Williams, G. (1999). Public speaking: Connecting you and your audience. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company.

Paul, R., & Elder, L. (2007). The miniature guide to critical thinking: Concepts and tools. Dillon Beach, CA: The Foundation for Critical Thinking Press.

Yaniv, I., & Meyer, D. (1987). Activation and metacognition of inaccessible stored information: Potential bases for incubation effects in problem loving. Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 13, 187–205.

10.4 Myths and Realities of Public Speaking

Now that you have identified your purpose, chosen your topic and thesis statement, gathered and organized

your material, you are almost ready to put your speech into its final form. At this juncture, let’s examine some

common public speaking myths and outline the guidelines you’ll need to consider as you prepare to face your

audience. There are a lot of myths associated with public speaking. In many ways these guidelines dispel common

perceptions of public speaking and may lead you to be more open with yourself and your audience as you prepare

and present your speech.

Speaking in Public Is Not Like Killing Lions

From an evolutionary biology perspective, our bodies have developed to respond to stress in advantageous ways.

When we needed to run from a bear, hunt a lion, or avoid a snake, our bodies predictably got us prepared with

a surge of adrenaline (Burnham, T., and Phelan, J., 2000). Hunters who didn’t respond well to stress or failed at

hunting were less likely to live long enough to reach maturity and reproduce. So we have the successful hunter to

thank for our genes, but people in developed countries today do not need hunting skills to feed their families.

While food is still an issue in many parts of the world, our need to respond to threats and stress has shifted

from our evolutionary roots to concern over our job, our relationships, and how we negotiate a modern economy.

Communication is a great resource and tool, and we can apply the principles and lessons to ourselves. We can

create the perception that the speech is like defeating the lion and really get ourselves worked up. Or we can

choose to see it as a natural extension of communication with others.

Speaking in public itself is not inherently stressful, but our response to the stimulus can contribute to or reduce

our level of stress. We all will have a stress response to a new, unknown, or unfamiliar stimulus. Nevertheless,

the butterflies in our stomach are a response we can choose to control by becoming more familiar with the

expectations, preparation, and performance associated with speaking in public.

You Don’t Have to Be Perfect

Letting go of perfection can be the hardest guideline to apply to ourselves. It’s also in our nature to compare

ourselves to others and ourselves. You might forgive a classmate for the occasional “umm” during a speech, but

then turn right around and spend a lot of mental effort chastising yourself for making the same error in your

presentation. We all have distinct strengths and weaknesses. Knowing yourself and where you need to improve

is an important first step. Recognizing that Rome wasn’t built in a day, and that you won’t become a world-class

speaker overnight, may be easier said than done.

It may help to recognize that your listeners don’t want to see you fail; on the contrary, they want you to do well,

because when you do, they will be able to relax and enjoy your presentation. You might be surprised to know

that not everyone counts each time you say “umm.” However, if “umm,” “ahhh,” or “you know what I mean” are

phrases that you tend to repeat, they will distract your audience from your message. Eliminating such distracting

habits can become a goal for improvement. Improvement is a process, not an end in itself; in fact, many people

believe that learning to speak in public is more about the journey than the destination. Each new setting, context,

and audience will present new challenges, and your ability to adapt, learned through your journey of experience,

will help you successfully meet each new challenge.

Organization Is Key to Success

Have you ever thought of a great comeback to something someone said a while after they said it?Wouldn’t it have

been nice to be quick and articulate and able to deliver your comeback right then and there? Speaking in public

gives you a distinct advantage over “off the cuff” improvisation and stumbling for the right comeback. You get to

prepare and be organized. You know you’ll be speaking to an audience in order to persuade them to do, think, or

consider an idea or action.

What issues might they think of while you are speaking? What comebacks or arguments might they say if it

were a debate? You get to anticipate what the audience will want to know, say, or hear. You get to prepare your

statements and visual aids to support your speech and create the timing, organization, and presentation of each

point. Many times in life we are asked to take a position and feel unprepared to respond. Speaking in public gives

you the distinct opportunity to prepare and organize your ideas or points in order to make an impact and respond

effectively.

Speaking in Public Is Like Participating in a Conversation

This may sound odd at first, but consider the idea of an “enlarged conversation” described by Julia T. Wood. She

expresses a clear connection between everyday speech and public dialogue. Sometimes we take a speech turn,

while at other times we remain silent while others take their turn. We do this all day long and think nothing of it.

We are often the focus of attention from friends and colleagues and it hardly ever makes us nervous. When we get

on a stage, however, some people perceive that the whole game has changed. It hasn’t. We still take turns, and the

speaker will take a longer turn as part of an enlarged conversation. People in the audience will still communicate

feedback and the speaker will still negotiate his or her turn just the way they would in an everyday conversation.

The difference is all about how we, as the speaker, perceive the context.

Some people feel that the level of expectations, the need for perfection, or the idealistic qualities we perceive

in eloquent speakers are required, and then focus on deficiencies, fears, and the possibility of failing to measure

up. By letting go of this ideal, we can approach the challenge with a more pragmatic frame of mind. The rules we

play comfortably by in conversation every day are the same as we shift to a larger conversation within the context

of public speaking. This viewpoint can offer an alternative as you address your apprehensions, and help you let

go of unrealistic expectations.

References

Burnham, T., & Phelan, J. (2000). Mean genes: From sex to money to food: Taming our primal instincts. Cambridge, MA: Perseus.

Woods, J. (2001). Communication mosaics: An introduction to the field of communication (2nd ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

10.5 Overcoming Obstacles in Your Presentation

We have examined steps to help you investigate and build an effective speech, and discussed some myths, and

realities, associated with public speaking. In order to prepare you for success, let’s revisit some obstacles you’ll

want to avoid in order to make your content as accessible to your audience as possible. To build on what we

covered, let’s examine three key barriers to an effective speech: language, perception, and ethnocentrism. As a

speaker, you will need to make an effort to consider each one and how you will create a bridge, rather than

contribute to a barrier, with your audience.

Language

Language serves both to bring us together and to help us reinforce our group status. Language can include

established languages, like Spanish or French; dialects; or even subtle in-group language styles within a larger

language context. Have you ever been part of a group that has its own words or phrases, expressions that have

meanings understood only by the members of your group? It is not unusual for families, groups of close friends,

classmates, and romantic couples to develop these kinds of “private language.” When a group communicates in

its own way, it can create a sense of belonging, reinforcing your membership and place in that group.

People often tell each other stories, which often communicate a value or meaning in the culture. Perhaps

you have heard the saying, “The early bird gets the worm,” with its underlying meaning that the one who is

prepared and ready gets the reward. In North America, this saying is common, and reflects a cultural value about

promptness and competition. Diverse cultures have diverse sayings that reflect differences in values, customs, and

traditions

Judy Pearson, Paul Nelson, and Joseph DeVito describe two key areas of language that serve to bring us

together, but because they involve a specialized knowledge unique to the group or community, they can create

barriers to outsiders. These are often called co-languages, because they exist and interact with a dominant

language but are nonetheless distinct from it. Jargon is an occupation-specific language used by people in a

given profession. Think of the way medical caregivers speak to one another, frequently using abbreviations for

procedures and medications. Slang is the use of existing or newly invented words to take the place of standard

or traditional words with the intent of adding an unconventional, nonstandard, humorous, or rebellious effect.

Think of how the words “cool,” “glitzy,” or “scam” are used in casual conversation. In addition to language-based

barriers, there are also several factors, many of which we have visited in previous chapters, which can act as

barriers to effective intercultural communication.

Nature of Perception

Perception is an important part of the communication process, and it is important to recognize that other people’s

perceptions may be different from our own in several ways.

Your cultural value system, what you value and pay attention to, will significantly affect your speech and how

your listeners perceive it. North American culture places an emphasis on space, with an “appropriate” distance

while shaking hands, for example. If a North American travels to France, Spain, or Chile, he or she will find that

a much smaller sense of personal space is the norm, and may receive a kiss on the cheek as a greeting from a

new acquaintance. If the North American is uncomfortable, the person from France may not attribute his or her

discomfort to personal space, and they may have a miscommunication. Learning about other cultures can help you

adapt your speech in diverse settings, and make you more comfortable as you enter new situations where others’

perceptions are different from your own.

Role identities, which involve expected social behavior, are another aspect of intercultural communication that

can act as a barrier to effective communication. How does your culture expect men and women to act and behave?

How about children, or elders, and older citizens? The word “role” implies an expectation of how one is supposed

to act in certain settings and scenes; just like in a play or a movie, each person has a culturally bound set of role

expectations. Who works as a doctor, a lawyer, a nurse, or a welder? As times and cultures change, so do role

identities. Business management was once perceived as a profession dominated by men, but in recent decades

women have become actively involved in starting, developing, and facilitating the growth of businesses. As a

speaker, your role will necessarily involve preparation and practice, and to a degree an element of leadership as

you present your content and guide your audience through it. Your audience also has a role, which involves active

listening and displays of interest. Your overlapping roles of interest in the topic are keys to an effective speech.

Goals reflect what we value and are willing to work for and vary widely across cultures. In some cultures, an

afternoon lunch is the main meal of the day, a time with the family, which is followed by a siesta or resting period.

In the United States and northern Europe, people often have a quick lunch or even a “working lunch,” with the

emphasis on continuing productivity and the goal of personal and organizational achievement. The differences in

values, such as family time versus work time, establish themselves in how we lead our lives. To a European who

is accustomed to a full month of vacation each year, the thought of someone from the United States spending a

few intense, three-day power weekends hiking, skiing, or sailing might seem stressful. To a goal-oriented North

American, the power weekend may be just the rejuvenation required to get “back in the game.” Time, and limits

on it, will be an important goal in your speech.

Geert Hofstede has spent decades researching the concepts of individualism versus collectivism across diverse

cultures. He characterized U.S. culture as strongly individualistic: people perceive things primarily from their own

viewpoint, see themselves as individuals capable of making his or her own decisions, and feel responsible for their

actions and solving their own problems (Hofstede, G., 1982). He also found many countries in Asia and South

America to be much more collectivistic, focusing on the needs of the family, community, or larger group. In this

context, cultural background can become a barrier to an effective speech if your fail to consider your audience and

their needs.

In addition, there are other cultural dimensions that influence how we relate to the world that impact our

intercultural communication. Carley Dodd discusses the degree to which cultures communicate rules explicitly or

implicitly (Dodd, C., 1998). In an explicit context, the rules are discussed before we hold a meeting, negotiate a

contract, or even play a game. In the United States, we want to make sure everyone knows the rules beforehand

and get frustrated if people do not follow the rules. In the Middle East and Latin America, the rules are generally

understood by everyone, and people from these cultures tend to be more accommodating to small differences and

are less concerned about whether or not everyone plays by the same rules. Our ability to adapt to contexts that are

explicit or implicit is related to our ability to tolerate uncertainty (Hofstede G., 1982).

In the United States, we often look to guiding principles rather than rules for every circumstance, and believe

that with hard work, we can achieve our goals even though we do not know the outcome. In Peru, Chile, and Argentina, however, people prefer to reduce ambiguity and uncertainty, and like to know exactly what is expected and what the probable outcome will be (Samovar, L., Porter, R., and Stefani, L., 1998).

When we consider whether a culture as a whole places more emphasis on the individual or the community, we

must be careful to recognize that individual members of the culture may hold beliefs or customs that do not follow

a cultural norm. Stereotypes, defined as generalizations about a group of people that oversimplify their culture

(Rogers, E., and Steinfatt, T., 1999), can be one significant barrier to effective intercultural communication.

Gordon Allport, a pioneer in the field of communication research, examined how and when we formulate or

use stereotypes to characterize distinct groups or communities. He found that we tend to stereotype people and

cultures with which we have little contact (Allport, G., 1958).

In addition, your first-hand experience will provide you with an increased understanding of prejudice.

Prejudice involves a negative preconceived judgment or opinion that guides conduct or social behavior. Within

the United States, can you make a list of people or groups that may be treated with prejudice by the majority

group? Your list may include specific ethnic, racial, or cultural groups that are stereotyped in the media, but it

could also include socioeconomic groups or even different regions of the United States. For example, Native

Americans were long treated with prejudice in early Western films. Can you imagine, in other countries they may

also treat groups with prejudice? In many parts of South America, indigenous people are treated poorly and their

rights as citizens are sometimes not respected. Has treatment of Native Americans changed in North America? It

has also changed, and continues to change in North and South America.

People who treat other with prejudice often make judgments about the group or communities. As Allport

illustrated for us, we often assume characteristics about groups with which we have little contact. By extension,

we can sometimes assume similarity that people are all basically similar, in effect denying cultural, racial, or

ethnic differences. We sometimes describe the United States as a “melting pot,” where individual and cultural

differences blend to become a homogeneous culture. This “melting pot” often denies cultural differences. The

metaphor of a “salad bowl,” where communities and cultures retain their distinctive characteristics or “flavor,”

serves as more equitable model. In this “salad bowl,” we value the differences and what they contribute to the

whole.

We can also run the risk of assuming familiarity with cultures when we attribute characteristics of one group to

everyone who has connections to the larger culture. For example, people may assume that we are familiar with all

Native Americans if we know one tribe in our community, forgetting the distinct differences that exist between

tribes and even between individual Native Americans who live either in urban areas or on reservations.

Ethnocentrism

Finally, your experience may help you to not view the world and its diversity of cultures in an ethnocentric way.

Ethnocentrism means you go beyond pride in your culture, heritage or background and hold the “conviction that

(you) know more and are better than those of different cultures” (Seiler, W., and Beall, M., 2000). This belief in

the superiority of one’s own group can guide individual and group behavior. If you visit a new country where

people do things differently, you would be considered ethnocentric if you viewed their way as wrong because it

is not the same way you were taught. Groups are considered ethnocentric if they prejudge individuals or other

groups of people based on negative preconceptions.

References

Allport, G. (1958). The nature of prejudice. New York, NY: Doubleday.

DeVito, J. (1986). The communication handbook: A dictionary. New York, NY: Harper & Row.

Dodd, C. (1998). Dynamics of intercultural communication (5th ed.). New York, NY: Harper & Row.

Hofstede, G. (1982). Culture’s consequences (2nd ed.). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Pearson, J., & Nelson, P. (2000). An introduction to human communication: Understanding and sharing. Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill.

Rogers, E., & Steinfatt, T. (1999). Intercultural communication. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press.

Samovar, L., Porter, R., & Stefani, L. (1998). Communication between cultures (3rd ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

Seiler, W., & Beall, M. (2000). Communication: Making connections (4th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

10.6 Additional Resources

Oral communication skill is key to success in politics. Visit the C-SPAN Web site to watch and listen to speeches, interviews, and other public speaking events. http://www.c-span.org/

Schooltube.com offers a video archive of student government speeches. http://www.schooltube.com/

The Nation’s Forum Collection of the Library of Congress consists of recordings of dozens of speeches from the period 1918 to 1920. http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/nfhtml

The Copyright Office of the Library of Congress offers a wide variety of resources for understanding copyright law and how to avoid plagiarism. http://www.copyright.gov

Thunderbird School of Global Management operates Thunderbird Knowledge Network, an interactive forum on contemporary business issues delivered in stories, columns, videos, podcasts, and blogs. http://knowledgenetwork.thunderbird.edu/research

The U.S. Department of Labor’s Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) sets the standards and conducts inspections to ensure safety and prevent accidents in the workplace. http://www.osha.gov

Watch an informative speech on “Avoiding Stereotypes in Public Speaking.” https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Jbcr23KerV4

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