____________________________________________________________________________

We should never denigrate any other culture but rather help people to understand the relationship between their own culture and the dominant culture. When you understand another culture or language, it does not mean that you have to lose your own culture.

–Edward T. Hall

I’ve been traveling all over the world for 25 years, performing, talking to people, studying their cultures and musical instruments, and I always come away with more questions in my head than can be answered.

–Yo-Yo Ma

Getting Started

As a professional in the modern business community, you need to be aware that the very concept of community

is undergoing a fundamental transformation. Throughout the world’s history—until recently—a community was

defined by its geographic boundaries. A merchant supplied salt and sugar, and people made what they needed.

The products the merchant sold were often produced locally because the cost of transportation was significant. A

transcontinental railroad brought telegraph lines, shipping routes, and brought ports together from coast to coast.

Shipping that once took months and years was now measured in days. A modern highway system and cheap

oil products allowed for that measurement unit to be reduced to days and minutes. Just in time product delivery

reduced storage costs, from renting a warehouse at the port to spoilage in transit. As products sold, bar code and

RDIF (radio frequency identification) tagged items instantly updated inventories and initiated orders at factories

all over the world.

Communication, both oral and written, linked communities in ways that we failed to recognize until economic

turmoil in one place led to job loss, in a matter of days or minutes, thousands of miles away. A system of trade

and the circulation of capital and goods that once flowed relatively seamlessly have been challenged by change,

misunderstanding, and conflict. People learn of political, economic, and military turmoil that is instantly translated

into multiple market impacts. Integrated markets and global networks bind us together in ways we are just now

learning to appreciate, anticipate, and understand. Intercultural and international communication are critical areas

of study with readily apparent, real-world consequences.

Agrarian, industrial, and information ages gave way to global business and brought the importance of

communication across cultures to the forefront. The Pulitzer Prize–winning journalist Thomas Friedman calls

this new world “flat,” (Friedman, T., 2005) noting how the integration of markets and community had penetrated

the daily lives of nearly everyone on the planet, regardless of language or culture. While the increasing ease of

telecommunications and travel have transformed the nature of doing business, Friedman argues that “the dawning

‘flat world’ is a jungle pitting ‘lions’ and ‘gazelles,’ where ‘economic stability is not going to be a feature’ and

‘the weak will fall farther behind’” (Publishers Weekly, 2009). Half of the world’s population that earn less than

$2 (USD) a day felt the impact of a reduction in trade and fluctuations in commodity prices even though they may

not have known any of the details. Rice, for example, became an even more valuable commodity than ever; to

the individuals who could not find it, grow it, or earn enough to buy it, the hunger felt was personal and global.

International trade took on a new level of importance.

Intercultural and international business communication has taken on a new role for students as well as career

professionals. Knowing when the European and Asian markets open has become mandatory; so has awareness

of multiple time zones and their importance in relation to trade, shipping, and the production cycle. Managing

production in China from an office in Chicago has become common. Receiving technical assistance for your

computer often means connecting with a well-educated English speaker in New Delhi. We compete with each

other via Elance.com or oDesk.com for contracts and projects, selecting the currency of choice for each bid as we

can be located anywhere on the planet. Communities are no longer linked as simply “brother” and “sister” cities

in symbolic partnerships. They are linked in the daily trade of goods and services.

In this chapter, we explore this dynamic aspect of communication. If the foundation of communication is

important, its application in this context is critical. Just as Europe once formed intercontinental alliances for the

trade of metals—leading to the development of a common currency, trade zone, and new concept of nationstate—

now North and South America are following with increased integration. Major corporations are no longer

affiliated with only one country or one country’s interests but instead perceive the integrated market as team

members across global trade. “Made in X” is more of a relative statement as products, from cars to appliances to

garments, now come with a list of where components were made and assembled and what percentage corresponds

to each nation.

Global business is more than trade between companies located in distinct countries; indeed, that concept is already

outdated. Intercultural and international business focuses less on the borders that separate people and more on the

communication that brings them together. Business communication values clear, concise interaction that promotes

efficiency and effectiveness. You may perceive your role as a business communicator within a specific city,

business, or organization, but you need to be aware that your role crosses cultures, languages, value and legal

systems, and borders.

References

Friedman, T. (2005). The world is flat: A brief history of the twenty-first century. New York, NY: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux.

Publishers Weekly. (2009). The world is flat: A brief history of the twenty-first century [Starred review]. Retrieved from http://www.thomaslfriedman.com/bookshelf/the-world-is-flat.

18.1 Intercultural Communication

Communication is the sharing of understanding and meaning (Pearson, J. and Nelson, P., 2000), but what is intercultural communication? If you answered, “The sharing of understanding and meaning across cultures,” you’d be close, but the definition requires more attention. What is a culture? Where does one culture stop and another start? How are cultures created, maintained, and dissolved? Donald Klopf described culture as “that part of the environment made by humans” (Klopf, D., 1991). From the building we erect that represents design values to the fences we install that delineate borders, our environment is a representation of culture, but it is not all that is culture.

Culture involves beliefs, attitudes, values, and traditions that are shared by a group of people. Thus, we must

consider more than the clothes we wear, the movies we watch, or the video games we play, all representations of

environment, as culture. Culture also involves the psychological aspects of our expectations of the communication

context. For example, if we are raised in a culture where males speak while females are expected to remain silent,

the context of the communication interaction governs behavior, which in itself is a representation of culture.

From the choice of words (message), to how we communicate (in person, or by e-mail), to how we acknowledge

understanding with a nod or a glance (nonverbal feedback), to the internal and external interference, all aspects of

communication are influenced by culture.

In defining intercultural communication, we only have eight components of communication to work with and

yet we must bridge divergent cultures with distinct values across languages and time zones to exchange value, a

representation of meaning. It may be tempting to consider only the source and receiver within a transaction as a

representation of intercultural communication, but if we do that, we miss the other six components—the message,

channel, feedback, context, environment, and interference—in every communicative act. Each component

influences and is influenced by culture. Is culture context? Environment? Message? Culture is represented in all

eight components every time we communicate. All communication is intercultural.

We may be tempted to think of intercultural communication as interaction between two people from different

countries. While two distinct national passports may be artifacts, or nonverbal representations of communication,

what happens when two people from two different parts of the same country communicate? From high and

low Germanic dialects, to the perspective of a Southerner versus a Northerner in the United States, to the rural

versus urban dynamic, our geographic, linguistic, educational, sociological, and psychological traits influence our

communication.

It is not enough to say that someone from rural Southern Chile and the capital, Santiago, both speak Castellano

(the Chilean word for the Spanish language), so that communication between them must be intracultural

communication, or communication within the same culture. What is life like for the rural Southerner? For the

city dweller?Were their educational experiences the same? Do they share the same vocabulary? Do they value the

same things? To a city dweller, all the sheep look the same. To the rural Southerner, the sheep are distinct, with

unique markings; they have value as a food source, a source of wool with which to create sweaters and socks that

keep the cold winters at bay, and in their numbers they represent wealth. Even if both Chileans speak the same

language, their socialization will influence how they communicate and what they value, and their vocabulary will

reflect these differences.

Let’s take this intranational comparison a step further. Within the same family, can there be intercultural

communication? If all communication is intercultural, then the answer would be yes, but we still have to prove

our case. Imagine a three-generation family living in one house. The grandparents may represent another time and

different values from the grandchildren. The parents may have a different level of education and pursue different

careers from the grandparents; the schooling the children are receiving may prepare them for yet another career.

From music, to food preferences, to how work is done may vary across time; Elvis Presley may seem like ancient

history to the children. The communication across generations represents intercultural communication, even if

only to a limited degree.

But suppose we have a group of students who are all similar in age and educational level. Do gender and the

societal expectations of roles influence interaction? Of course. And so we see that among these students not only

do the boys and girls communicate in distinct ways but also not all boys and girls are the same. With a group of

sisters, there may be common characteristics, but they will still have differences, and these differences contribute

to intercultural communication. We are each shaped by our upbringing and it influences our worldview, what we

value, and how we interact with each other. We create culture, and it creates us.

Everett Rogers and Thomas Steinfatt define intercultural communication as the exchange of information

between individuals who are “unalike culturally” (Rogers, E. and Steinfatt, T., 1999). If you follow our discussion

and its implications, you may arrive at the idea that ultimately we are each a “culture of one”—we are

simultaneously a part of a community and its culture(s) and separate from it in the unique combination that

represents us as an individual. All of us are separated by a matter of degrees from each other even if we were

raised on the same street or by parents of similar educational background and profession, and yet, we have many

other things in common.

Communication with yourself is called intrapersonal communication, which may also be intracultural, as you

may only represent one culture. But most people belong to many groups, each with their own culture. Within our

imaginary intergenerational home, how many cultures do you think we might find? If we only consider the parents

and consider work one culture, and family another, we now have two. If we were to examine the options more

closely, we would find many more groups, and the complexity would grow exponentially. Does a conversation

with yourself ever involve competing goals, objectives, needs, wants, or values? How did you learn of those

goals, or values? Through communication within and between individuals, they themselves representatives of

many cultures.We struggle with the demands of each group and their expectations and could consider this internal

struggle intercultural conflict or simply intercultural communication.

Culture is part of the very fabric of our thought, and we cannot separate ourselves from it, even as we leave

home, defining ourselves anew in work and achievements. Every business or organization has a culture, and

within what may be considered a global culture, there are many subcultures or co-cultures. For example, consider

the difference between the sales and accounting departments in a corporation. We can quickly see two distinct

groups with their own symbols, vocabulary, and values. Within each group, there may also be smaller groups,

and each member of each department comes from a distinct background that in itself influences behavior and

interaction.

Intercultural communication is a fascinating area of study within business communication, and it is essential to

your success. One idea to keep in mind as we examine this topic is the importance of considering multiple points

of view. If you tend to dismiss ideas or views that are “unalike culturally,” you will find it challenging to learn

about diverse cultures. If you cannot learn, how can you grow and be successful?

Ethnocentrism is the tendency to view other cultures as inferior to one’s own. Having pride in your culture can

be healthy, but history has taught us that having a predisposition to discount other cultures simply because they are

different can be hurtful, damaging, and dangerous. Ethnocentrism makes us far less likely to be able to bridge the

gap with others and often increases intolerance of difference. Business and industry are no longer regional, and in

your career, you will necessarily cross borders, languages, and cultures. You will need tolerance, understanding,

patience, and openness to difference. A skilled business communicator knows that the process of learning is never

complete, and being open to new ideas is a key strategy for success.

References

Klopf, D. (1991). Intercultural encounters: The fundamentals of intercultural communication (2nd ed.). Inglewood, CA: Morton Publishing Company.

Pearson, J., & Nelson, P. (2000). An introduction to human communication: Understanding and sharing. Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill.

Rogers, E., & Steinfatt, T. (1999). Intercultural communication. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press.

18.2 How to Understand Intercultural Communication

The American anthropologist Edward T. Hall is often cited as a pioneer in the field of intercultural communication

(Chen, G. and Starosta, W., 2000). Born in 1914, Hall spent much of his early adulthood in the multicultural

setting of the American Southwest, where Native Americans, Spanish-speakers, and descendents of pioneers came

together from diverse cultural perspectives. He then traveled the globe during World War II and later served as

a U.S. State Department official. Where culture had once been viewed by anthropologists as a single, distinct

way of living, Hall saw how the perspective of the individual influences interaction. By focusing on interactions

rather than cultures as separate from individuals, he asked us to evaluate the many cultures we ourselves belong

to or are influenced by as well as those with whom we interact. While his view makes the study of intercultural

communication far more complex, it also brings a healthy dose of reality to the discussion. Hall is generally

credited with eight contributions to our study of intercultural communication (Chen, G. and Starosta, W., 2000;

Leeds-Hurwitz, W., 1990; McLean, S., 2005):

1. Compare cultures. Focus on the interactions versus general observations of culture.

2. Shift to local perspective. Local level versus global perspective.

3. You don’t have to know everything to know something. Time, space, gestures, and gender roles can be studied, even if we lack a larger understanding of the entire culture.

4. There are rules we can learn. People create rules for themselves in each community that we can learn from, compare, and contrast.

5. Experience counts. Personal experience has value in addition to more comprehensive studies of interaction and culture.

6. Perspectives can differ. Descriptive linguistics serves as a model to understand cultures, and the U.S. Foreign Service adopted it as a base for training.

7. Intercultural communication can be applied to international business. U.S. Foreign Service training yielded applications for trade and commerce and became a point of study for business majors.

8. It integrates the disciplines. Culture and communication are intertwined and bring together many academic disciplines.

Hall shows us that emphasis on a culture as a whole, and how it operates, may lead us to neglect individual

differences. Individuals may hold beliefs or practice customs that do not follow their own cultural norm. When

we resort to the mental shortcut of a stereotype, we lose these unique differences. Stereotypes can be defined as a

generalization about a group of people that oversimplifies their culture (Rogers, E. and Steinfatt, T., 1999).

The American psychologist Gordon Allport explored how, when, and why we formulate or use stereotypes

to characterize distinct groups. His results may not surprise you. Look back at the third of the Note 18.1

“Introductory Exercises” for this chapter and examine the terms you used to describe a culture with which you

are unfamiliar. Were the terms flattering or pejorative? Did they reflect respect for the culture or did they make

unfavorable value judgments? Regardless of how you answered, you proved Allport’s main point. When we do

not have enough contact with people or their cultures to understand them well, we tend to resort to stereotypes

(Allport, G., 1958).

As Hall notes, experience has value. If you do not know a culture, you should consider learning more about it

firsthand if possible. The people you interact with may not be representative of the culture as a whole, but that is

not to say that what you learn lacks validity. Quite the contrary; Hall asserts that you can, in fact, learn something

without understanding everything, and given the dynamic nature of communication and culture, who is to say that

your lessons will not serve you well? Consider a study abroad experience if that is an option for you, or learn from

a classmate who comes from a foreign country or an unfamiliar culture. Be open to new ideas and experiences,

and start investigating. Many have gone before you, and today, unlike in generations past, much of the information

is accessible. Your experiences will allow you to learn about another culture and yourself, and help you to avoid

prejudice.

Prejudice involves a negative preconceived judgment or opinion that guides conduct or social behavior

(McLean, S., 2005). As an example, imagine two people walking into a room for a job interview. You are tasked

to interview both, and having read the previous section, you know that Allport rings true when he says we rely

on stereotypes when encountering people or cultures with which we have had little contact. Will the candidates’

dress, age, or gender influence your opinion of them? Will their race or ethnicity be a conscious or subconscious

factor in your thinking process? Allport’s work would indicate that those factors and more will make you likely

to use stereotypes to guide your expectations of them and your subsequent interactions with them.

People who treat other with prejudice often make assumptions, or take preconceived ideas for granted without

question, about the group or communities. As Allport illustrated for us, we often assume characteristics about

groups with which we have little contact. Sometimes we also assume similarity, thinking that people are

all basically similar. This denies cultural, racial, ethnic, socioeconomic, and many other valuable, insightful

differences.

References

Allport, G. (1958). The nature of prejudice. New York, NY: Doubleday.

Chen, G., & Starosta, W. (2000). Foundations of intercultural communication. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

Hall, E. (1966). The hidden dimension. New York, NY: Doubleday.

Leeds-Hurwitz, W. (1990). Notes in the history of intercultural communication: The foreign service institute and the mandate for intercultural training. Quarterly Journal of Speech, 76, 268–281.

McLean, S. (2005). The basics of interpersonal communication. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

Rogers, E., & Steinfatt, T. (1999). Intercultural communication. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press.

18.3 Common Cultural Characteristics

While we may be members of many different cultures, we tend to adhere to some more than others. Perhaps you

have become friendly with several of your fellow students as you’ve pursued your studies in college. As you take

many of the same classes and share many experiences on campus, you begin to have more and more in common,

in effect forming a small group culture of your own. A similar cultural formation process may happen in the

workplace, where coworkers spend many hours each week sharing work experiences and getting to know each

other socially in the process.

Groups come together, form cultures, and grow apart across time. How does one become a member of a

community, and how do you know when you are full member? What aspects of culture do we have in common

and how do they relate to business communication? Researchers who have studied cultures around the world have

identified certain characteristics that define a culture. These characteristics are expressed in different ways, but

they tend to be present in nearly all cultures. Let’s examine them.

Rites of Initiation

Cultures tend to have a ritual for becoming a new member. A newcomer starts out as a nonentity, a stranger,

an unaffiliated person with no connection or even possibly awareness of the community. Newcomers who stay

around and learn about the culture become members. Most cultures have a rite of initiation that marks the passage

of the individual within the community; some of these rituals may be so informal as to be hardly noticed (e.g.,

the first time a coworker asks you to join the group to eat lunch together), while others may be highly formalized

(e.g., the ordination of clergy in a religion). The nonmember becomes a member, the new member becomes a full

member, and individuals rise in terms of responsibility and influence.

Business communities are communities first, because without communication interaction, no business will

occur. Even if sales and stock are processed by servers that link database platforms to flow, individuals are still

involved in the maintenance, repair, and development of the system. Where there is communication, there is

culture, and every business has several cultures.

Across the course of your life, you have no doubt passed several rites of initiation but may not have taken notice

of them. Did you earn a driver’s license, register to vote, or acquire the permission to purchase alcohol? In North

American culture, these three common markers indicate the passing from a previous stage of life to a new one,

with new rights and responsibilities. As a child, you were not allowed to have a driver’s license. At age fourteen to

eighteen, depending on your state and location (rural versus urban), you were allowed to drive a tractor, use farm

equipment, operate a motor vehicle during daylight hours, or have full access to public roads.With the privilege of

driving comes responsibility. It is your responsibility to learn what the signs and signals mean and to obey traffic

laws for the common safety. In order for stop signs to work, we all have to agree on the behavior associated with

them and observe that behavior.

Sometimes people choose to ignore a stop sign, or accidentally miss one, and it places the public in danger. Law

enforcement officials reinforce that common safety as representatives of the culture, empowered by the people

themselves based on a common agreement of what a stop sign means and what a driver is supposed to do when

approaching one. Some people may argue that law enforcement serves some while it prosecutes others. This point

of debate may deserve some consideration, but across cultures, there are rules, signs, and symbols that we share.

Rites of initiation mark the transition of the role or status of the individual within the group. Your first day

on the job may have been a challenge as you learned your way around the physical space, but the true challenge

was to learn how the group members communicate with each other. If you graduate from college with a Master of

Business Administration (MBA) degree, you will already have passed a series of tests, learned terms and theories,

and possess a symbol of accomplishment in your diploma, but that only grants you the opportunity to look for a

job—to seek access to a new culture.

In every business, there are groups, power struggles, and unspoken ways that members earn their way from

the role of a “newbie” to that of a full member. The newbie may get the tough account, the office without a

window, or the cubicle next to the bathroom, denoting low status. As the new member learns to navigate through

the community—establishing a track record and being promoted—he passes the rite of initiation and acquires new

rights and responsibilities.

Over time, the person comes to be an important part of the business, a “keeper of the flame.” The “flame” may

not exist in physical space or time, but it does exist in the minds of those members in the community who have

invested time and effort in the business. It is not a flame to be trusted to a new person, as it can only be earned

with time. Along the way, there may be personality conflicts and power struggles over resources and perceived

scarcity (e.g., there is only one promotion and everyone wants it). All these challenges are to be expected in any

culture.

Common History and Traditions

Think for a moment about the history of a business like Ford Motor Company—what are your associations with

Henry Ford, the assembly line manufacturing system, or the Model T? Or the early days of McDonald’s? Do you

have an emotional response to mental images of the “golden arches” logo, Ronald McDonald, or the Big Mac

sandwich? Traditions form as the organization grows and expands, and stories are told and retold to educate new

members on how business should be conducted. The history of every culture, of every corporation, influences the

present. There are times when the phrase “we’ve tried that before” can become stumbling block for members of

the organization as it grows and adapts to new market forces. There may be struggles between members who have

weathered many storms and new members, who come armed with new educational perspectives, technological

tools, or experiences that may contribute to growth.

Common Values and Principles

Cultures all hold values and principles that are commonly shared and communicated from older members to

younger (or newer) ones. Time and length of commitment are associated with an awareness of these values

and principles, so that new members, whether they are socialized at home, in school, or at work, may not have

a thorough understanding of their importance. For example, time (fast customer service) and cleanliness are

two cornerstone values of the McDonald’s corporation. A new employee may take these for granted, while a

seasoned professional who inspects restaurants may see the continued need to reinforce these core values.Without

reinforcement, norms may gradually change, and if this were the case it could fundamentally change the customer

experience associated with McDonald’s.

Common Purpose and Sense of Mission

Cultures share a common sense of purpose and mission. Why are we here and whom do we serve? These are

fundamental questions of the human condition that philosophers and theologians all over the world have pondered

for centuries. In business, the answers to these questions often address purpose and mission, and they can be

found in mission and vision statements of almost every organization. Individual members will be expected to

acknowledge and share the mission and vision, actualize them, or make them real through action. Without action,

the mission and vision statements are simply an arrangement of words. As a guide to individual and group

behavioral norms, they can serve as a powerful motivator and a call to action.

Common Symbols, Boundaries, Status, Language, and Rituals

Most of us learn early in life what a stop sign represents, but do we know what military stripes represent on

a sleeve, or a ten-year service pin on a lapel, or a corner office with two windows? Cultures have common

symbols that mark them as a group; the knowledge of what a symbol stands for helps to reinforce who is a group

member and who is not. You may have a brand on your arm from your fraternity, or wear a college ring—symbols

that represent groups you affiliate with temporarily, while you are a student. They may or may not continue to

hold meaning to you when your college experience is over. Cultural symbols include dress, such as the Western

business suit and tie, the Scottish kilt, or the Islamic headscarf. Symbols also include slogans or sayings, such

as “you’re in good hands” or “you deserve a break today.” The slogan may serve a marketing purpose but may

also embrace a mission or purpose within the culture. Family crests and clan tartan patterns serve as symbols of

affiliation. Symbols can also be used to communicate rank and status within the group.

Space is another common cultural characteristic; it may be a nonverbal symbol that represents status and power.

In most of the world’s cultures, a person occupying superior status is entitled to a physically elevated position—a

throne, a dais, a podium from which to address subordinates. Subordinates may be expected to bow, curtsy, or

lower their eyes as a sign of respect. In business, the corner office may offer the best view with the most space.

Movement from a cubicle to a private office may also be a symbol of transition within an organization, involving

increased responsibility as well as power. Parking spaces, the kind of vehicle you drive, and the transportation

allowance you have may also serve to communicate symbolic meaning within an organization.

The office serves our discussion on the second point concerning boundaries. Would you sit on your boss’s desk

or sit in his chair with your feet up on the desk in his presence? Most people indicate they would not, because

doing so would communicate a lack of respect, violate normative space expectations, and invite retaliation. Still,

subtle challenges to authority may arise in the workplace. A less than flattering photograph of the boss at the

office party posted to the recreational room bulletin board communicates more than a lack of respect for authority.

By placing the image anonymously in a public place, the prankster clearly communicates a challenge, even if it

is a juvenile one. Movement from the cubicle to the broom closet may be the result for someone who is found

responsible for the prank. Again, there are no words used to communicate meaning, only symbols, but those

symbols represent significant issues.

Communities have their own vocabulary and way in which they communicate. Consider the person who

uses a sewing machine to create a dress and the accountant behind the desk; both are professionals and both

have specialized jargon used in their field. If they were to change places, the lack of skills would present an

obstacle, but the lack of understanding of terms, how they are used, and what they mean would also severely limit

their effectiveness. Those terms and how they are used are learned over time and through interaction. While a

textbook can help, it cannot demonstrate use in live interactions. Cultures are dynamic systems that reflect the

communication process itself.

Cultures celebrate heroes, denigrate villains, and have specific ways of completing jobs and tasks. In business

and industry, the emphasis may be on effectiveness and efficiency, but the practice can often be “because that

is the way we have always done it.” Rituals serve to guide our performance and behavior and may be limited

to small groups or celebrated across the entire company. A pink Cadillac has a special meaning for a Mary Kay

cosmetics representative. How that car is received is ritualistic, recognizing current success while honoring past

performances across the company.

Rituals can serve to bind a group together, or to constrain it. Institutions tend to formalize processes and then

have a hard time adapting to new circumstances. While the core values or mission statement may hold true, the

method of doing things that worked in the past may not be as successful as it once was. Adaptation and change

can be difficult for individuals and companies, and yet all communities, cultures, and communication contexts are

dynamic, or always changing. As much as we might like things to stay the same, they will always change—and

we will change with (and be changed by) them.

18.4 Divergent Cultural Characteristics

We are not created equal. We are born light- or dark-skinned, to parents of education or parents without access

to education, and we grow up short or tall, slender or stocky. Our life chances or options are in many ways

determined by our birth. The Victorian “rags to riches” novels that Horatio Alger wrote promoted the ideal that

individuals can overcome all obstacles, raising themselves up by their bootstraps. Some people do have amazing

stories, but even if you are quick to point out that Microsoft founder Bill Gates became fabulously successful

despite his lack of a college education, know that his example is exception, not the rule. We all may use the

advantages of our circumstances to improve our lives, but the type and extent of those advantages vary greatly

across the planet.

Cultures reflect this inequality, this diversity, and the divergent range of values, symbols, and meanings across

communities. Can you tie a knot? Perhaps you can tie your shoes, but can you tie a knot to secure a line to a boat,

to secure a heavy load on a cart or truck, or to bundle a bale of hay? You may not be able to, but if you were

raised in a culture that place a high value on knot-tying for specific purposes, you would learn that which your

community values. We all have viewpoints, but they are shaped by our interactions with our communities. Let’s

examine several points of divergence across cultures.

Individualistic versus Collectivist Cultures

People in individualistic cultures value individual freedom and personal independence, and cultures always

have stories to reflect their values. You may recall the story of Superman, or John McLean in the Diehard

series, and note how one person overcomes all obstacles. Through personal ingenuity, in spite of challenges, one

person rises successfully to conquer or vanquish those obstacles. Sometimes there is an assist, as in basketball or

football, where another person lends a hand, but still the story repeats itself again and again, reflecting the cultural viewpoint.

The Dutch researcher Geert Hofstede explored the concepts of individualism and collectivism across diverse

cultures (Hofstede, G., 1982; Hofstede, G., 2001; Hofstede, G., 2005). He found that in individualistic cultures

like the United States, people perceived their world primarily from their own viewpoint. They perceived

themselves as empowered individuals, capable of making their own decisions, and able to make an impact on their

own lives.

Cultural viewpoint is not an either/or dichotomy, but rather a continuum or range. You may belong to some

communities that express individualistic cultural values, while others place the focus on a collective viewpoint.

Collectivist cultures (Hofstede, G., 1982), including many in Asia and South America, focus on the needs of

the nation, community, family, or group of workers. Ownership and private property is one way to examine

this difference. In some cultures, property is almost exclusively private, while others tend toward community

ownership. The collectively owned resource returns benefits to the community. Water, for example, has long

been viewed as a community resource, much like air, but that has been changing as business and organizations

have purchased water rights and gained control over resources. Public lands, such as parks, are often considered

public, and individual exploitation of them is restricted. Copper, a metal with a variety of industrial applications,

is collectively owned in Chile, with profits deposited in the general government fund. While public and private

initiatives exist, the cultural viewpoint is our topic. How does someone raised in a culture that emphasizes the

community interact with someone raised in a primarily individualistic culture? How could tensions be expressed

and how might interactions be influenced by this point of divergence?

Explicit-Rule Cultures versus Implicit-Rule Cultures

Do you know the rules of your business or organization? Did you learn them from an employee manual or by

observing the conduct of others? Your response may include both options, but not all cultures communicate rules

in the same way. Carley Dodd discusses this difference and has found quite a range of difference. In an explicitrule

culture, where rules are clearly communicated so that everyone is aware of them, the guidelines and agenda

for a meeting are announced prior to the gathering. In an implicit-rule culture, where rules are often understood

and communicated nonverbally, there may be no agenda. Everyone knows why they are gathered and what

role each member plays, even though the expectations may not be clearly stated. Power, status, and behavioral

expectations may all be understood, and to the person from outside this culture, it may prove a challenge to

understand the rules of the context.

Outsiders often communicate their “otherness” by not knowing where to stand, when to sit, or how to initiate a

conversation if the rules are not clearly stated. While it may help to know that implicit-rule cultures are often more

tolerant of deviation from the understood rules, the newcomer will be wise to learn by observing quietly—and to

do as much research ahead of the event as possible.

Uncertainty-Accepting Cultures versus Uncertainty-Rejecting Cultures

When we meet each other for the first time, we often use what we have previously learned to understand our

current context. We also do this to reduce our uncertainty. Some cultures, such as the United States and Britain,

are highly tolerant of uncertainty, while others go to great lengths to reduce the element of surprise. Cultures in

the Arab world, for example, are high in uncertainty avoidance; they tend to be resistant to change and reluctant to

take risks. Whereas a U.S. business negotiator might enthusiastically agree to try a new procedure, the Egyptian

counterpart would likely refuse to get involved until all the details are worked out.

Charles Berger and Richard Calabrese developed uncertainty reduction theory to examine this dynamic aspect

of communication. Here are seven axioms of uncertainty:

1. There is a high level of uncertainty at first. As we get to know one another, our verbal communication increases and our uncertainty begins to decrease.

2. Following verbal communication, nonverbal communication increases, uncertainty continues to decrease, and more nonverbal displays of affiliation, like nodding one’s head to indicate agreement, will start to be expressed.

3. When experiencing high levels of uncertainty, we tend to increase our information-seeking behavior, perhaps asking questions to gain more insight. As our understanding increases, uncertainty decreases, as does the information-seeking behavior.

4. When experiencing high levels of uncertainty, the communication interaction is not as personal or intimate. As uncertainty is reduced, intimacy increases.

5. When experiencing high levels of uncertainty, communication will feature more reciprocity, or displays of respect. As uncertainty decreases, reciprocity may diminish.

6. Differences between people increase uncertainty, while similarities decrease it.

7. Higher levels of uncertainty are associated with a decrease in the indication of liking the other person, while reductions in uncertainty are associated with liking the other person more.

Time Orientation

Edward T. Hall and Mildred Reed Hall state that monochronic time-oriented cultures consider one thing at a time,

whereas polychronic time-oriented cultures schedule many things at one time, and time is considered in a more

fluid sense. In monochromatic time, interruptions are to be avoided, and everything has its own specific time.

Even the multitasker from a monochromatic culture will, for example, recognize the value of work first before

play or personal time. The United States, Germany, and Switzerland are often noted as countries that value a

monochromatic time orientation.

Polychromatic time looks a little more complicated, with business and family mixing with dinner and dancing.

Greece, Italy, Chile, and Saudi Arabia are countries where one can observe this perception of time; business

meetings may be scheduled at a fixed time, but when they actually begin may be another story. Also note that the

dinner invitation for 8 p.m. may in reality be more like 9 p.m. If you were to show up on time, you might be the

first person to arrive and find that the hosts are not quite ready to receive you.

When in doubt, always ask before the event; many people from polychromatic cultures will be used to

foreigner’s tendency to be punctual, even compulsive, about respecting established times for events. The skilled

business communicator is aware of this difference and takes steps to anticipate it. The value of time in different

cultures is expressed in many ways, and your understanding can help you communicate more effectively.

Short-Term versus Long-Term Orientation

Do you want your reward right now or can you dedicate yourself to a long-term goal? You may work in a culture

whose people value immediate results and grow impatient when those results do not materialize. Geert Hofstede

discusses this relationship of time orientation to a culture as a “time horizon,” and it underscores the perspective of

the individual within a cultural context. Many countries in Asia, influenced by the teachings of Confucius, value

a long-term orientation, whereas other countries, including the United States, have a more short-term approach

to life and results. Native American cultures are known for holding a long-term orientation, as illustrated by the

proverb attributed to the Iroquois that decisions require contemplation of their impact seven generations removed.

If you work within a culture that has a short-term orientation, you may need to place greater emphasis on

reciprocation of greetings, gifts, and rewards. For example, if you send a thank-you note the morning after being

treated to a business dinner, your host will appreciate your promptness. While there may be a respect for tradition,

there is also an emphasis on personal representation and honor, a reflection of identity and integrity. Personal

stability and consistency are also valued in a short-term oriented culture, contributing to an overall sense of

predictability and familiarity.

Long-term orientation is often marked by persistence, thrift and frugality, and an order to relationships based

on age and status. A sense of shame for the family and community is also observed across generations. What an

individual does reflects on the family and is carried by immediate and extended family members.

Masculine versus Feminine Orientation

There was a time when many cultures and religions valued a female figurehead, and with the rise of Western

cultures we have observed a shift toward a masculine ideal. Each carries with it a set of cultural expectations and

norms for gender behavior and gender roles across life, including business.

Hofstede describes the masculine-feminine dichotomy not in terms of whether men or women hold the power

in a given culture, but rather the extent to which that culture values certain traits that may be considered masculine

or feminine. Thus, “the assertive pole has been called ‘masculine’ and the modest, caring pole ‘feminine.’ The

women in feminine countries have the same modest, caring values as the men; in the masculine countries they

are somewhat assertive and competitive, but not as much as the men, so that these countries show a gap between

men’s values and women’s values” (Hofstede, G., 2009).

We can observe this difference in where people gather, how they interact, and how they dress. We can see

it during business negotiations, where it may make an important difference in the success of the organizations

involved. Cultural expectations precede the interaction, so someone who doesn’t match those expectations may

experience tension. Business in the United States has a masculine orientation—assertiveness and competition

are highly valued. In other cultures, such as Sweden, business values are more attuned to modesty (lack of self promotion)

and taking care of society’s weaker members. This range of difference is one aspect of intercultural

communication that requires significant attention when the business communicator enters a new environment.

Direct versus Indirect

In the United States, business correspondence is expected to be short and to the point. “What can I do for you?”

is a common question when a business person receives a call from a stranger; it is an accepted way of asking the

caller to state his or her business. In some cultures it is quite appropriate to make direct personal observation, such

as “You’ve changed your hairstyle,” while for others it may be observed, but never spoken of in polite company.

In indirect cultures, such as those in Latin America, business conversations may start with discussions of the weather, or family, or topics other than business as the partners gain a sense of each other, long before the topic of business is raised. Again, the skilled business communicator researches the new environment before entering it, as a social faux pas, or error, can have a significant impact.

Materialism versus Relationships

Does the car someone drives say something about them? You may consider that many people across the planet

do not own a vehicle and that a car or truck is a statement of wealth. But beyond that, do the make and model

reflect their personality? If you are from a materialistic culture, you may be inclined to say yes. If you are from a

culture that values relationships rather than material objects, you may say no or focus on how the vehicle serves

the family. From rocks that display beauty and wealth—what we call jewelry—to what you eat—will it be lobster

ravioli or prime rib?—we express our values and cultural differences with our purchase decisions.

Members of a materialistic culture place emphasis on external goods and services as a representation of self,

power, and social rank. If you consider the plate of food before you, and consider the labor required to harvest

the grain, butcher the animal, and cook the meal, you are focusing more on the relationships involved with its

production than the foods themselves. Caviar may be a luxury, and it may communicate your ability to acquire

and offer a delicacy, but it also represents an effort. Cultures differ in how they view material objects and their

relationship to them, and some value people and relationships more than the objects themselves. The United States

and Japan are often noted as materialistic cultures, while many Scandinavian nations feature cultures that place

more emphasis on relationships.

Low-Power versus High-Power Distance

How comfortable are you with critiquing your boss’s decisions? If you are from a low-power distance culture,

your answer might be “no problem.” In low-power distance cultures, according to Hofstede, people relate to one

another more as equals and less as a reflection of dominant or subordinate roles, regardless of their actual formal

roles as employee and manager, for example.

In a high-power distance culture, you would probably be much less likely to challenge the decision, to provide

an alternative, or to give input. If you are working with people from a high-power distance culture, you may

need to take extra care to elicit feedback and involve them in the discussion because their cultural framework

may preclude their participation. They may have learned that less powerful people must accept decisions without

comment, even if they have a concern or know there is a significant problem. Unless you are sensitive to cultural

orientation and power distance, you may lose valuable information.

References

Berger, C., & Calabrese, R. (1975). Some explorations in initial interactions and beyond: Toward a developmental theory of interpersonal communication. Human communication Research, 1, 99–112.

Dodd, C. (1998). Dynamics of intercultural communication (5th ed.). New York, NY: Harper & Row.

Hall, M. R., & Hall, E. T. (1987). Hidden differences: Doing business with the Japanese. New York, NY: Doubleday.

Hofstede, G. (1982). Culture’s consequences (2nd ed.). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Hofstede, G. (2001). Culture’s consequences: Comparing values, behaviors, institutions, and organizations across nations (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Hofstede, G. (2005). Cultures and organizations: Software of the mind (2nd ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.

18.5 International Communication and the Global Marketplace

People create systems that reflect cultural values. These systems reduce uncertainty for the culture, creating and

perpetuating the rules and customs, but may prove a significant challenge to the entrepreneur entering a new

market. Political, legal, economic, and ethical systems vary from culture to culture, and may or may not reflect

formal boundaries. For example, disputes over who controls what part of their shoreline are common and are still

a matter of debate, interpretation, and negotiation in many countries.

To a large extent, a country’s culture is composed of formal systems. Formal systems often direct, guide,

constrain, or promote some behaviors over others. A legal system, like taxation, may favor the first-time

homebuyer in the United States, and as a consequence, home ownership may be pursued instead of other

investment strategies. That same legal system, via tariffs, may levy import taxes on specific goods and services,

and reduce their demand as the cost increases. Each of these systems reinforces or discourages actions based on

cultural norms, creating regulations that reflect ways that each culture, through its constituents, views the world.

In this section, we’ll examine intercultural communication from the standpoint of international communication.

International communication can be defined as communication between nations, but we recognize that nations

do not exist independent of people. International communication is typically government to government or, more

accurately, governmental representatives to governmental representatives. It often involves topics and issues that

relate to the nations as entities, broad issues of trade, and conflict resolution. People use political, legal, and

economic systems to guide and regulate behavior, and diverse cultural viewpoints necessarily give rise to many

variations. Ethical systems also guide behavior, but often in less formal, institutional ways. Together these areas

form much of the basis of international communication, and warrant closer examination.

Political Systems

You may be familiar with democracy, or rule by the people; and theocracy, or rule of God by his or her designates;

but the world presents a diverse range of how people are governed. It is also important to note, as we examine

political systems, that they are created, maintained, and changed by people. Just as people change over time, so

do all systems that humans create. A political climate that was once closed to market forces, including direct and

indirect investment, may change over time.

Centuries ago, China built a physical wall to keep out invaders. In the twentieth century, it erected another kind

of wall: a political wall that separated the country from the Western world and limited entrepreneurship due to

its adherence to its interpretation of communism. In 2009, that closed market is now open for business. To what

extent it is open may be a point of debate, but simple observation provides ample evidence of a country, and

a culture, open to investment and trade. The opening and closing ceremonies for the 2008 Olympic Games in

Beijing symbolized this openness, with symbolic representations of culture combined with notable emphasis on

welcoming the world. As the nature of global trade and change transforms business, so it also transforms political

systems.

Political systems are often framed in terms of how people are governed, and the extent to which they may

participate. Democracy is one form of government that promotes the involvement of the individual, but even here

we can observe stark differences. In the United States, people are encouraged to vote, but it is not mandatory, and

voter turnout is often so low that voting minorities have great influence on the larger political systems. In Chile,

voting is mandatory, so that all individuals are expected to participate, with adverse consequences if they do not.

This doesn’t mean there are not still voting minorities or groups with disproportionate levels of influence and

power, but it does underscore cultural values and their many representations.

Centralized rule of the people also comes in many forms. In a dictatorship, the dictator establishes and

enforces the rules with few checks and balances, if any. In a totalitarian system, one party makes the rules. The

Communist states of the twentieth century (although egalitarian in theory) were ruled in practice by a small central

committee. In a theocracy, one religion makes the rules based on their primary documents or interpretation of

them, and religious leaders hold positions of political power. In each case, political power is centralized to a small

group over the many.

A third type of political system is anarchy, in which there is no government. A few places in the world, notably

Somalia, may be said to exist in a state of anarchy. But even in a state of anarchy, the lack of a central government

means that local warlords, elders, and others exercise a certain amount of political, military, and economic power.

The lack of an established governing system itself creates the need for informal power structures that regulate

behavior and conduct, set and promote ideals, and engage in commerce and trade, even if that engagement

involves nonstandard strategies such as the appropriation of ships via piracy. In the absence of appointed or elected

leaders, emergent leaders will rise as people attempt to meet their basic needs.

Legal Systems

Legal systems also vary across the planet and come in many forms. Some legal systems promote the rule of

law while others promote the rule of culture, including customs, traditions, and religions. The two most common

systems are civil and common law. Civil law draws from a Roman history and common law from an English

tradition. In civil law the rules are spelled out in detail, and judges are responsible for applying the law to the

given case. In common law, the judge interprets the law and considers the concept of precedent, or previous

decisions. Common law naturally adapts to changes in technology and modern contexts as precedents accumulate,

while civil law requires new rules to be written out to reflect the new context even as the context transforms and

changes. Civil law is more predictable and is practiced in the majority of countries, while common law involves

more interpretation that can produce conflict with multiple views on the application of the law in question. The

third type of law draws its rules from a theological base rooted in religion. This system presents unique challenges

to the outsider, and warrants thorough research.

Economic Systems

Economic systems vary in similar ways across cultures, and again reflect the norms and customs of people.

Economies are often described on the relationship between people and their government. An economy with a high

degree of government intervention may prove challenging for both internal and external businesses. An economy

with relatively little government oversight may be said to reflect more of the market(s) and to be less restricted.

Along these same lines, government may perceive its role as a representative of the common good, to protect

individual consumers, and to prevent fraud and exploitation.

This continuum or range, from high to low degrees of government involvement, reflects the concept of

government itself. A government may be designed to give everyone access to the market, with little supervision,

in the hope that people will regulate transactions based on their own needs, wants, and desires; in essence, their

own self-interest. If everyone operates in one’s self-interest and word gets out that one business produces a

product that fails to work as advertised, it is often believed that the market will naturally gravitate away from this

faulty product to a competing product that works properly. Individual consumers, however, may have a hard time

knowing which product to have faith in and may look to government to provide that measure of safety.

Government certification of food, for example, attempts to reduce disease. Meat from unknown sources would

lack the seal of certification, alerting the consumer to evaluate the product closely or choose another product. In

terms of supervision, we can see an example of this when Japan restricts the sale of U.S. beef for fear of mad cow

disease. The concern may be warranted from the consumer’s viewpoint, or it may be protectionist from a business

standpoint, protecting the local producer over the importer.

From meat to financial products, we can see both the dangers and positive attributes of intervention and can

also acknowledge that its application may be less than consistent. Some cultures that value the community may

naturally look to their government for leadership in economic areas, while those that represent an individualistic

tendency may take a more “hands off” approach.

Ethical Systems

Ethical systems, unlike political, legal, and economic systems, are generally not formally institutionalized. This

does not imply, however, that they are less influential in interactions, trade, and commerce. Ethics refers to a set

of norms and principles that relate to individual and group behavior, including businesses and organizations. They

may be explicit, in the form of an organization’s code of conduct; may be represented in religion, as in the Ten

Commandments; or may reflect cultural values in law. What is legal and what is ethical are at times quite distinct.

For example, the question of executive bonuses was hotly debated when several U.S. financial services

companies accepted taxpayer money under the Troubled Assets Relief Program (TARP) in 2008. It was legal for

TARP recipient firms to pay bonuses—indeed, some lawyers argued that failing to pay promised bonuses would

violate contract law—but many taxpayers believed it was unethical.

Some cultures have systems of respect and honor that require tribute and compensation for service, while others

may view payment as a form of bribe. It may be legal in one country to make a donation or support a public

official in order to gain influence over a decision, but it may be unethical. In some countries, it may be both illegal

and unethical. Given the complexity of human values and their expression across behaviors, it is wise to research

the legal and ethical norms of the place or community where you want to do business.

Global Village

International trade has advantages and disadvantages, again based on your viewpoint and cultural reference. If

you come from a traditional culture, with strong gender norms and codes of conduct, you may not appreciate the

importation of some Western television programs that promote what you consider to be content that contradicts

your cultural values. You may also take the viewpoint from a basic perspective and assert that basic goods and

services that can only be obtained through trade pose a security risk. If you cannot obtain the product or service,

it may put you, your business, or your community at risk.

Furthermore, “just in time” delivery methods may produce shortages when the systems break down due to

weather, transportation delays, or conflict. People come to know each other through interactions (and transactions

are fundamental to global trade), but cultural viewpoints may come into conflict. Some cultures may want a

traditional framework to continue and will promote their traditional cultural values and norms at the expense of

innovation and trade. Other cultures may come to embrace diverse cultures and trade, only to find that they have

welcomed some who wish to do harm. In a modern world, transactions have a cultural dynamic that cannot be

ignored.

Intercultural communication and business have been related since the first exchange of value. People, even

from the same community, had to arrive at a common understanding of value. Symbols, gestures, and even

language reflect these values. Attention to this central concept will enable the skilled business communicator to

look beyond his or her own viewpoint.

It was once the privilege of the wealthy to travel, and the merchant or explorer knew firsthand what many could

only read about. Now we can take virtual tours of locations we may never travel to, and as the cost of travel

decreases, we can increasingly see the world for ourselves. As global trade has developed, and time to market

has decreased, the world has effectively grown smaller. While the size has not changed, our ability to navigate

has been dramatically decreased. Time and distance are no longer the obstacles they once were. The Canadian

philosopher Marshall McLuhan, a pioneer in the field of communication, predicted what we now know as the

“global village.” The global village is characterized by information and transportation technologies that reduce

the time and space required to interact (McLuhan, M., 1964).

18.6 Styles of Management

People and their relationships to dominant and subordinate roles are a reflection of culture and cultural viewpoint.

They are communicated through experience and create expectations for how and when managers interact with

employees. The three most commonly discussed management theories are often called X, Y, and Z. In this section

we’ll briefly discuss them and their relationship to intercultural communication.

Theory X

In an influential book titled The Human Side of Enterprise, M. I. T. management professor Douglas McGregor

described two contrasting perceptions on how and why people work, formulating Theory X and Theory Y; they

are both based on Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (Maslow, A., 1954; Maslow, A., 1970). According to this model,

people are concerned first with physical needs (e.g., food, shelter) and second with safety. At the third level,

people seek love, acceptance, and intimacy. Self-esteem, achievement, and respect are the fourth level. Finally,

the fifth level embodies self-actualization.

McGregor’s Theory X asserts that workers are motivated by their basic (low-level) needs and have a general

disposition against labor. In this viewpoint, workers are considered lazy and predicted to avoid work if they

can, giving rise to the perceived need for constant, direct supervision. A Theory X manager may be described

as authoritarian or autocratic, and does not seek input or feedback from employees. The view further holds that

workers are motivated by personal interest, avoid discomfort, and seek pleasure. The Theory X manager uses

control and incentive programs to provide punishment and rewards. Responsibility is the domain of the manager,

and the view is that employees will avoid it if at all possible to the extent that blame is always deflected or

attributed to something other than personal responsibility. Lack of training, inferior machines, or failure to provide

the necessary tools are all reasons to stop working, and it is up to the manager to fix these issues.

Theory Y

In contrast to Theory X, Theory Y views employees as ambitious, self-directed, and capable of self-motivation.

Employees have a choice, and they prefer to do a good job as a representation of self-actualization. The pursuit

of pleasure and avoidance of pain are part of being human, but work is also a reward in itself and employees take

pride in their efforts. Employees want to reach their fullest potential and define themselves by their profession. A

job well done is reward in and of itself, and the employee may be a valuable source of feedback. Collaboration is

viewed as normal, and the worker may need little supervision.

Theory Z

Theory X and Y may seem like two extremes across the range of management styles, but in fact they are

often combined in actual work settings. William Ouchi’s Theory Z combines elements of both, and draws from

American and Japanese management style. It promotes worker participation and emphasizes job rotation, skills

development, and loyalty to the company (Luthans, F., 1989). Workers are seen as having a high need for

reinforcement, and belonging is emphasized. Theory Z workers are trusted to do their jobs with excellence and

management is trusted to support them, looking out for their well-being (Massie J. and Douglas, J., 1992).

Each of these theories of management features a viewpoint with assumptions about people and why they do

what they do. While each has been the subject of debate, and variations on each have been introduced across

organizational communication and business, they serve as a foundation for understanding management in an

intercultural context.

References

Luthans, F. (1989). Organisational behaviour. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.

Maslow, A. (1954). Motivation and personality. New York, NY: Harper & Row.

Maslow, A. (1970). Motivation and personality (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Harper & Row.

Massie, J., & Douglas, J. (1992). Managing: A contemporary introduction. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

McGregor, D. (1960). The human side of enterprise. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.

18.7 The International Assignment

Suppose you have the opportunity to work or study in a foreign country. You may find the prospect of an

international assignment intriguing, challenging, or even frightening; indeed, most professionals employed abroad

will tell you they pass through all three stages at some point during the assignment. They may also share their

sense of adjustment, even embrace of their host culture, and the challenges of reintegration into their native

country.

An international assignment, whether as a student or a career professional, requires work and preparation, and

should be given the time and consideration of any major life change. When you lose a loved one, it takes time

to come to terms with the loss. When someone you love is diagnosed with a serious illness, the news may take

some time to sink in. When a new baby enters your family, a period of adjustment is predictable and prolonged.

All these major life changes can stress an individual beyond their capacity to adjust. Similarly, in order to be a

successful “expat,” or expatriate, one needs to prepare mentally and physically for the change.

International business assignments are a reflection of increased global trade, and as trade decreases, they

may become an expensive luxury. As technology allows for instant face-to-face communication, and group

collaboration on documents via cloud computing and storage, the need for physical travel may be reduced. But

regardless of whether your assignment involves relocation abroad, supervision of managers in another country

at a distance, or supervision by a foreign manager, you will need to learn more about the language, culture, and

customs that are not your own. You will need to compare and contrast, and seek experiences that lend insight, in

order to communicate more effectively.

An efficient, effective manager in any country is desirable, but one with international experience even more

so. You will represent your company and they will represent you, including a considerable financial investment,

either by your employer (in the case of a professional assignment) or by whoever is financing your education

(in the case of studying abroad). That investment should not be taken lightly. As many as 40 percent of foreignassigned

employees terminate their assignments early (Tu, H. and Sullivan, S., 1994), at a considerable cost to

their employers. Of those that remain, almost 50 percent are less than effective (Tu, H. and Sullivan, S., 1994).

Preparation

With this perspective in mind, let’s discuss how to prepare for the international assignment and strategies to make

you a more effective professional as a stranger in a strange land. First we’ll dispel a couple of myths associated

with an idealized or romantic view of living abroad. Next we’ll examine traits and skills of the successful

expatriate. Finally, we’ll examine culture shock and the acculturation process.

Your experience with other cultures may have come firsthand, but for most, a foreign location like Paris is an

idea formed from exposure to images via the mass media. Paris may be known for its art, as a place for lovers, or

as a great place to buy bread. But if you have only ever known about a place through the lens of a camera, you

have only seen the portraits designed and portrayed by others. You will lack the multidimensional view of one

who lives and works in Paris, and even if you are aware of its history, its economic development, or its recent

changes, these are all academic observations until the moment of experience.

That is not to say that research does not form a solid foundation in preparation for an international assignment,

but it does reinforce the distinction between a media-fabricated ideal and real life. Awareness of this difference is

an important step as you prepare yourself for life in a foreign culture.

If the decision is yours to make, take your time. If others are involved, and family is a consideration, you should

take even more care with this important decision. Residence abroad requires some knowledge of the language,

an ability to adapt, and an interest in learning about different cultures. If family members are not a part of the

decision, or lack the language skills or interest, the assignment may prove overwhelming and lead to failure. Sixtyfour

percent of expatriate respondents who terminated their assignment early indicated that family concerns were

the primary reason (Contreras, C. D., 2009).

Points to consider include the following:

• How flexible are you?

• Do you need everything spelled out or can you go with the flow?

• Can you adapt to new ways of doing business?

• Are you interested in the host culture and willing to dedicate the time and put forth the effort to learn more about it?

• What has been your experience to date working with people from distinct cultures?

• What are your language skills at present, and are you interested in learning a new language?

• Is your family supportive of the assignment?

• How will it affect your children’s education? Your spouse’s career? Your career?

• Will this assignment benefit your family?

• How long are you willing to commit to the assignment?

• What resources are available to help you prepare, move, and adjust?

• Can you stand being out of the loop, even if you are in daily written and oral communication with the home office?

• What is your relationship with your employer, and can it withstand the anticipated stress and tension that will result as not everything goes according to plan?

• Is the cultural framework of your assignment similar to—or unlike—your own, and how ready are you to adapt to differences in such areas as time horizon, masculinity versus femininity, or direct versus indirect styles of communication?

This list of questions could continue, and feel free to add your own as you explore the idea of an international

assignment. An international assignment is not like a domestic move or reassignment. Within the same country,

even if there are significantly different local customs in place, similar rules, laws, and ways of doing business are

present. In a foreign country, you will lose those familiar traditions and institutions and have to learn many new

ways of accomplishing your given tasks. What once took a five-minute phone call may now take a dozen meetings

and a month to achieve, and that may cause you some frustration. It may also cause your employer frustration as

you try to communicate how things are done locally, and why results are not immediate, as they lack even your

limited understanding of your current context. Your relationship with your employer will experience stress, and

your ability to communicate your situation will require tact and finesse.

Successful expatriates are adaptable, open to learning new languages, cultures, and skilled at finding common

ground for communication. Rather than responding with frustration, they learn the new customs and find the

advantage to get the job done. They form relationships and are not afraid to ask for help when it is warranted or

required. They feel secure in their place as explorer, and understand that mistakes are a given, even as they are

unpredictable. Being a stranger is no easy task, but they welcome the challenge with energy and enthusiasm.

Acculturation Process

Acculturation, or the transition to living abroad, is often described as an emotional rollercoaster. Steven

Rhinesmith provides ten steps that show the process of acculturation, including culture shock, that you may

experience:

1. Initial anxiety

2. Initial elation

3. Initial culture shock

4. Superficial adjustment

5. Depression-frustration

6. Acceptance of host culture

7. Return anxiety

8. Return elation

9. Reentry shock

10. Reintegration

Humans fear the unknown, and even if your tolerance for uncertainty is high, you may experience a degree of

anxiety in anticipation of your arrival. At first the “honeymoon” period is observed, with a sense of elation at all

the newfound wonders. You may adjust superficially at first, learning where to get familiar foods or new ways to

meet your basic needs. As you live in the new culture, divergence will become a trend and you’ll notice many

things that frustrate you. You won’t anticipate the need for two hours at a bank for a transaction that once took five

minutes, or could be handled over the Internet, and find that businesses close during midday, preventing you from

accomplishing your goals. At this stage, you will feel that living in this new culture is simply exhausting. Many

expats advise that this is the time to tough it out—if you give in to the temptation to make a visit back home, you

will only prolong your difficult adjustment.

Over time, if you persevere, you will come to accept and adjust to your host culture, and learn how to

accomplish your goals with less frustration and ease. You may come to appreciate several cultural values or traits

and come to embrace some aspects of your host culture. At some point, you will need to return to your first,

or home, culture, but that transition will bring a sense of anxiety. People and places change, the familiar is no

longer so familiar, and you too have changed. You may once again be elated at your return and the familiar, and

experience a sense of comfort in home and family, but culture shock may again be part of your adjustment. You

may look at your home culture in a new way and question things that are done in a particular way that you have

always considered normal. You may hold onto some of the cultural traits you adopted while living abroad, and

begin the process of reintegration.

You may also begin to feel that the “grass is greener” in your host country, and long to return. Expatriates are

often noted for “going native,” or adopting the host culture’s way of life, but even the most confirmed expats still

gather to hear the familiar sound of their first language, and find community in people like themselves who have

blended cultural boundaries on a personal level.

Living and Working Abroad

In order to learn to swim you have to get in the water, and all the research and preparation cannot take the place of

direct experience. Your awareness of culture shock may help you adjust, and your preparation by learning some of

the language will assist you, but know that living and working abroad take time and effort. Still, there are several

guidelines that can serve you well as you start your new life in a strange land:

1. Be open and creative. People will eat foods that seem strange or do things in a new way, and your

openness and creativity can play a positive role in your adjustment. Staying close to your living

quarters or surrounding yourself with similar expats can limit your exposure to and understanding of

the local cultures. While the familiar may be comfortable, and the new setting may be uncomfortable,

you will learn much more about your host culture and yourself if you make the effort to be open to

new experiences. Being open involves getting out of your comfort zone.

2. Be self-reliant. Things that were once easy or took little time may now be challenging or consume your

whole day. Focus on your ability to resolve issues, learn new ways to get the job done, and be prepared

to do new things.

3. Keep a balanced perspective. Your host culture isn’t perfect. Humans aren’t perfect, and neither was

your home culture. Each location and cultural community has strengths you can learn from if you are

open to them.

4. Be patient. Take your time, and know a silent period is normal. The textbook language classes only

provide a base from which you will learn how people who live in the host country actually

communicate. You didn’t learn to walk in a day and won’t learn to successfully navigate this culture

overnight either.

5. Be a student and a teacher. You are learning as the new member of the community, but as a full

member of your culture, you can share your experiences as well.

6. Be an explorer. Get out and go beyond your boundaries when you feel safe and secure. Traveling to

surrounding villages, or across neighboring borders, can expand your perspective and help you learn.

7. Protect yourself. Always keep all your essential documents, money, and medicines close to you, or

where you know they will be safe. Trying to source a medicine in a country where you are not fluent in

the language, or where the names of remedies are different, can be a challenge. Your passport is

essential to your safety and you need to keep it safe. You may also consider vaccination records, birth

certificates, or business documents in the same way, keeping them safe and accessible. You may want

to consider a “bug-out bag,” with all the essentials you need, including food, water, keys, and small

tools, as an essential part of planning in case of emergency.

References

Contreras, C. D. (2009). Should you accept the international assignment? BNET. Retrieved from http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa5350/is_200308/ai_n21334696.

Rhinesmith, S. (1984). Returning home. Ottawa, Canada: Canadian Bureau for International Education.

Tu, H., & Sullivan, S. (1994). Business horizons. Retrieved from http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1038/is_nl_v37/ai_14922926.

18.8 Additional Resources

Visit the Web site of culture scholar Edward T. Hall. http://www.edwardthall.com/index.html

Learn about intercultural awareness in the classroom by reading this article by Mark Pedelty — Pedelty, M. (2001). Self as Other: An Intercultural Performance Exercise. Multicultural Education, 8, 29-32.

Visit these sites to explore the history and traditions of some famous American businesses. http://corporate.ford.com/company/history.html; http://www.aboutmcdonalds.com/content/mcd/our_company/mcdonalds-history.html

Learn more about Geert Hofstede’s research on culture by exploring his Web site. http://geert-hofstede.com/

Read advice from the U.S. Department of State on living abroad http://travel.state.gov/

Visit ExpatExchange: A World of Friends Abroad to learn about the opportunities, experiences, and emotions of people living and working in foreign countries and cultures worldwide. http://www.expatexchange.com/newsarchiveall.cfm

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