Feminist Ethnography and Social Reproduction Theory

karen g. williams, Ph.D.Introduction

As mentioned in a previous chapter, ethnography is a research method that allows researchers to explore and examine the intricacies of cultures, societies, and the lived experiences of people (see chapter on Defining Ethnography). This qualitative approach uses various techniques such as surveys, interviews, life histories, participant observation, and mapping to gather data about people’s lives, culture, and society. However, the perspective or theoretical stance taken by the researcher significantly influences what they study and how they interpret their findings. For example, an anthropologist interested in examining women’s rights through a social reproduction lens might examine recent restrictions on reproduction and how this impacts women’s bodily autonomy. This type of project could be considered feminist ethnography, and the person might consider themselves a feminist. Feminist ethnography is a subset of the broader field of anthropology; it combines feminist theory with ethnographic methods to explore and understand gender dynamics within different societies. This chapter examines feminist ethnography and its application of social reproduction theory to highlight how gender and social inequalities are interwoven and perpetuated.

What is Feminist Ethnography?

Because feminist ethnography is a research methodology (an approach to the research) and a theory (the perspective or framework taken by the ethnographer) that focuses on understanding gender dynamics within various social and cultural contexts, scholars across academic disciplines have disagreed on its specific definition. It emerged as a response to the male-centric voices prevalent in traditional ethnographic studies and aimed to bring women's voices and experiences to the forefront. By taking a feminist approach, ethnographers commit to uncovering how gender operates within different cultural and social contexts. When feminist ethnographers analyze their data, they emphasize the gendered aspects of social life, viewing gender as a central factor in shaping power dynamics and resource distribution.

Although feminist ethnography primarily focuses on gender, it also considers other intersecting social identities, such as race, class, sexuality, and disability (Craven and Davis 2022). This approach highlights the experiences of marginalized groups and broadens representation in ethnographic studies. Early feminist ethnographies centered on social inequalities that impacted women, but contemporary feminist ethnographies have broadened to include diverse experiences and the impacts of structural inequalities on various marginalized groups. It has evolved from being solely about research by, about, and for women to include varied written constructions of gendered experiences, disabled people, and people who are LGBTQI+. Thus, feminist ethnography is broadly concerned with people affected by structural inequalities (Craven and Davis 2022).

Historical Context and the Impact of Feminism(s) on Feminist Ethnography

Feminist ethnography emerged in the 1970s as a corrective to the absence of women's perspectives in academic research and as subjects of study. Ethnographic studies conducted by male researchers typically reflected the culture, history, and everyday life from men's viewpoints. Feminist ethnographers, both women and men, sought to rectify this by incorporating a feminist analysis that examined how culture, politics, and institutions were gendered.

The development of feminist theory has evolved over time, impacting the development of feminist ethnography and shifting research practices. How one retells this chronology reflects a particular feminist perspective. Does the chronology start with feminist figures in the late nineteenth century? Does the chronology emphasize women outside the Euro-American framework, bringing attention to scholars and activists in Africa, India, Mexico, Peru, or Indigenous communities? Is the chronology linked to the suffrage and abolitionist movement? There are numerous ways to trace the influence of feminist thinking on the development of ethnography. Certain events may be emphasized over others depending on one's historical perspective and positionality.

The first wave in the late 19th and early 20th centuries focused on women's suffrage (the right to vote) and other legal rights. During this period, ethnographers documented women's lives in their communities and advocated for their rights. The second wave, in the 1960s and 1970s, coincided with the Civil Rights Movement and other social justice movements such as the Welfare Rights Movement, the Gay Rights Movement, the Native American Rights Movement, and the Women’s Liberation Movement. The Women’s Liberation Movement of the 1960s questioned the role of patriarchy and sexism in everyday life, politics, and institutions. Feminist ethnographers during this time examined issues such as reproductive rights, sexuality, and gender roles, which challenged the male-centric narratives in ethnography.

Feminist ethnographers were pioneers in advocating for reflexivity, the practice of critically examining one's biases and positionality in research (see chapter on Autoethnography and Writing Ethnography for more analysis of reflexivity). They recognized that a researcher's identity and experiences could influence their findings. For example, Annette Weiner's work in the Trobriand Islands of Papua New Guinea exemplifies this approach. In the 1970s, Weiner retraced Bronislaw Malinowski's seminal study of the Trobriand Islands and discovered significant aspects of the culture that Malinowski had overlooked, particularly the role of women in the island's economy (1976). Bronislaw Malinowski’s study, Argonauts of the Western Pacific, focused on the Kula ring, a system of exchange based on magical beliefs, traditions, duties, and obligations (1922). Weiner found that women had an elaborate gift exchange that included banana leaves and banana fiber skirts to honor people who had died. The women made the gifts and exchanged them amongst themselves. Additionally, the exchanges were interconnected with the yam exchanges that Malinowski had written about in his study. (Guest 2014:259) Weiner’s study provided a more comprehensive understanding of the Trobriand Islands’ economy. Also, it highlighted the importance of reflexivity and the need to account for gender biases in ethnographic research.

The third wave of feminism, emerging in the 1990s, underscored diversity and inclusivity. Scholars critiqued previous feminist movements for privileging the experiences of white, heteronormative women and excluding women of color and LGBTQ+ individuals. As a result, feminist ethnographers began to incorporate an intersectional analysis in their work. Intersectionality, a term coined by legal scholar Kimberlé Crenshaw in 1989, refers to how multiple social categories such as race, class, gender, sexuality, and disability intersect and combine to create unique experiences of discrimination and privilege. This theoretical framework helps explain how various forms of social stratification and oppression do not exist in isolation but create overlapping and interdependent systems of discrimination or disadvantage. The concept gained prominence in feminist scholarship and has been widely incorporated into many anthropological studies. In recent years, feminist ethnographers have increasingly engaged with trans rights and inequities impacting transgender people. This has led to feminist ethnographers examining key issues, such as discrimination and violence, access to gender-affirming healthcare, and recognition of non-binary and non-confirming gender identities.

Feminist ethnographers have continued to expand their analysis, ways of working with people, and the populations of people they study. For example, they have expanded to include transnational and global issues, showing how women’s lives and the ways that they experience inequality in one particular place are connected with and impact the lives of women in other places. In particular, feminist ethnographers concerned with post-colonial studies have critiqued the Western-centric approaches and instead highlight women’s voices from the Global South in their ethnographies. Feminist ethnographers are also interested in collaborative or participatory approaches. These studies seek to include the community in the research process, such as developing the research design, executing the project, making ethnographic maps (see chapter on Ethnographic Mapping), and writing the final ethnography. This approach challenged the top-down power dynamics and empowered marginalized communities to actively research their community and use that research to advocate for social change. Lastly, the digital age has resulted in more opportunities to understand how social media impacts how we conduct ethnography (see chapter on Digital Ethnography) and understand gender.

Feminist ethnographers have employed various theoretical approaches to analyze gender and sexual dynamics better. In addition to intersectionality, reflexivity, and participatory research, they have relied on social reproduction theory to understand these dynamics. This theory examines how domestic labor and raising the next generations are devalued in a capitalist society that prioritizes work outside the home. The following section will explore social reproduction theory in greater detail and its significance in understanding unpaid labor in the household.

What is Social Reproduction Theory?

Social reproduction theory is a critical framework used by feminists, anthropologists, and other social scientists to understand how societies and families sustain and reproduce themselves over time. It extends Karl Marx's analysis of capitalism by examining the processes that support the worker outside the formal labor economy. Marx argued that workers produce commodities and that their labor power has a “peculiar property of being a source of value” (Marx 1867) in the capitalist economy. Social reproduction theory asks, "Who produces the worker?" and explores the activities and relationships necessary to sustain labor power as well as “access to resources” (Bhattacharya 2019). In short, social reproduction theory is a feminist extension of Karl Marx's thinking and a critical analysis of capitalism.

Social reproduction encompasses a wide range of activities, including biological reproduction, child-rearing, household labor, and community support (Bhattacharya 2019). These activities are essential for the functioning of the economy but are often undervalued and performed by women. By focusing on what happens outside of formal work hours, social reproduction theory provides a holistic understanding of a worker's life, including the support systems and resources that enable them to participate in the labor force.

For example, if a person works from 9am to 5pm, social reproduction theory would be concerned with what happens before 9am and what happens after 5 pm. How is the person able to get ready for work? What happens when the person comes home? Who is there to support this process? What resources are available to this person? Examining the worker using social reproduction theory gives a more holistic understanding of their life. We might see that family and friends may support this process by preparing food, providing mental health support to process the day, washing dishes, and shopping for groceries, among other things, to keep the household functioning. The worker may also provide these resources for other family members after working 9am-5pm in a paid job. In addition to the unpaid labor provided by family and friends, some workers may also have access to additional paid support such as childcare, after-school programming, cleaning, or food delivery. Since not all families have the financial access to these paid supports, more barriers and challenges for the worker can be created. It is important to understand the full scope of how workers are able to sustain themselves. Thus, social reproduction theory is concerned with access to additional paid supports that help maintain one’s family. All these are part of understanding “who produces the worker.”

The Intersection of Feminist Ethnography and Social Reproduction

Feminist ethnography provides a methodological and theoretical lens to explore the complexities of social reproduction. For instance, a researcher might analyze how working-class women of color are disproportionately burdened with domestic labor and childcare responsibilities, limiting their opportunities for paid employment and economic independence. An ethnographer might also investigate how migrant domestic workers are exploited and undervalued in their roles as caregivers in wealthier countries, highlighting the global dimensions of social reproduction. By focusing on the lived experiences of women and marginalized communities, feminist ethnographers reveal the often invisible labor and dynamics that sustain societies. This intersection is evident in several key areas:

Household Labor and Care Work:

Feminist ethnographers study women's daily routines and responsibilities in maintaining households and caring for children, spouses, elderly parents, and other family members, often referred to as the second shift (Hochschild and Machung 2003). This includes cooking, cleaning, and providing emotional support, which are crucial for social cohesion yet frequently unrecognized economically. Ethnographic studies of domestic workers highlight their exploitation and precarity while also acknowledging their agency and strategies for resistance (Lan 2006).

2. Reproductive Justice:

Reproductive justice extends beyond the right to access reproductive healthcare, such as gynecological visits. Instead, it encompasses the social, economic, and political conditions that affect individuals' ability to make informed choices about reproduction. Ethnographic research on reproductive justice examines issues such as access to contraception and abortion, access to IVF and other assisted reproductive technologies (Deomampo 2016, Cromer 2023), maternal health disparities (Davis 2019, Mullings and Wali 2001, Mullings 2005), and the impacts of reproductive health biases against marginalized communities including BIPOC women and transgender people. These studies highlight the intersectional factors that shape reproductive experiences and advocacy efforts.

3. Labor Markets and Informal Economies:

Feminist ethnography sheds light on the experiences of women in informal labor markets, where they often engage in precarious and low-paid work (Newman 1999, Gina Ulysse 2008). This includes sectors such as domestic work, street vending, and sex work (Dewey and St Germain 2017). By documenting these experiences, feminist ethnographers expose the gendered dynamics of labor exploitation and advocate for policies that recognize and protect informal workers' rights.

Conclusion

Feminist ethnography and social reproduction theory offer profound insights into the lived experiences of women and other marginalized groups who labor. By emphasizing the significance of everyday labor, care, and reproductive justice, feminist ethnographers challenge dominant narratives that only examine life outside the home and uncover the hidden labor that sustains societies and economies. Through reflexivity and systematic ethnographic research, they illuminate the complexities of our gendered world of work and contribute to a more just and equitable world. As feminist ethnography continues to evolve, it remains a vital tool for understanding and transforming the social structures that shape our lives and our world of work.

Summary

Questions:

1. In what ways has feminist ethnography evolved from its early focus on women's rights to include broader social inequalities and diverse experiences?
2. What is social reproduction theory, and how does it extend Karl Marx's analysis of capitalism?
3. How do feminist ethnographers use social reproduction theory to explore labor dynamics and reproductive justice within marginalized communities?
4. If you used feminist ethnography to study the workplace, what type of project could you imagine?

Key Terms

References

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