“NOTES” in “General Economic History”
NOTES
PART ONE
CHAPTER I
General References.—A. Meitzen, Siedelung und Agrarwesen der West- und Ostgermanen, der Kelten, Römer, Finnen und Slawen. 4 vols. Berlin, 1896; G. F. Knapp, “Siedelung und Agrarwesen nach A. Meitzen,” in his Grundherrschaft und Rittergut, 101 ff. (Criticism of Meitzen); Max Weber, Article, “Agrargeschichte, Altertum,” in the Handwörterbuch der Staatswissenschaften, 3d ed., I, 52 ff. Jena, 1909.
See G. Hanssen, “Ansichten über das Agrarwesen der Vorzeit” in Neues staatsbürgerliches Magazin, vol. III (1835) and vol. VI (1837)—reprinted in his Agrarhistorischen Abhamdlungen, 2 vols., Leipsic, 1880–1884; also, G. von Maurer, Einteitung zur Mark- Hof-Dorf- und Stadtverfassung, Munich, 1854; E. de Laveleye, De la propriété et de ses formes primitive, Paris, 1874 (English translation, Primitive Property, London, 1878).
For orientation as to the origin and course of the controversy, see G. von Below, “Das kurze Leben einer vielgenannten Theorie,” in the volume, Probleme der Wirtschaftsgeschickte, Tuebingen, 1920; also, Max Weber, “Der Streit um den Character der altgermanischen Sozialverfassung,” in Jahrbb. f. National-ökonomie und Statistik, vol. LXXXIII (1904).
The hide organization has recently been the subject of a controversy closely connected with that regarding the theory of primitive communism. The older view saw in it a result and expression of the communal field system, but later writers contend for a manorial origin. Rübel, again, maintains that it was an institution originally peculiar to the Salian Franks and was spread over all Germany by the Frankish kingdom.
Cp. in general, Max Weber, Gesammelte Aufsâtze zur Religionssoziologie, Tuebingen, 1920, I, 350, and references there cited.
But it is not these arrangements which explain the stability of Indian conditions, as Karl Marx affirmed, but rather the caste system, just as in China it is the clan economy.
The principal contrast in agrarian economy between Europe and specifically Asiatic regions goes back to the fact that neither the Chinese nor Javanese peoples knew the use of milk from animals, while on European soil milking is met with as far back as Homer. On the other hand, in India since the middle ages, cattle cannot be slaughtered, and even today the upper castes condemn the eating of meat. Hence milk animals and meat animals are both absent in Asia over wide areas.
CHAPTER II
Cp. the right to bear arms, which existed to the time of the Peasants’ War. It will be seen that there is a right corresponding to the duty of the freeman to participate in the juridical community.
This investigation goes back to J. J. Bachofen, Das Mutterrecht, Stuttgart, 1861. The “matriarchal” (mutterrechtliche) origin of the family asserted by Bachofen was taken over into the works of L. H. Morgan (especially Ancient Society, New York, 1871), and of H. S. Maine (Ancient Law, London, 1861), and became the foundation of the socialistic theory. Cp. the works of Bebel, Engels, and Cunow. E. Grosse (Die Formen der Familie und die Formen der Wirtschaft, Freiburg and Leipsic, 1896) represents the reaction against a one-sided mother-right theory. Indicating the present state of knowledge, and in general free from bias, is Marianne Weber, Ehefrau und Mutter in der Rechtsetwicklung, Tuebingen, 1907.
CHAPTER III
Cp. A. Helps, The Spanish. Conquest in America. 4 vols. London, 1855–1861. The encomienda presupposes the system of repartimientos, or distribution of the Indians among the lords on a basis of number of individuals.
Cp. Max Weber, Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft (Grundriss der Sozialökonomik III Abt.), Tuebingen, 1922, 724 ff.
Cp. the summarizing sketches of P. Vinogradoff, “Origins of Feudalism,” in the Cambridge Mediœval History, II, 631 ff., and “Feudalism,” Ibid., III, 458 ff.
CHAPTER IV
Cp. A. Dopsch, Die Wirtschaftsentwicklung der Karolingerzeit, 2d ed., 2 vols., Weimar, 1921–22; also P. Vinogradoff, reference in Note 5 of Chap. III; H. See, Les classes rurales et le régime domaniale en France, Paris, 1901; F. Seebohm, The English Village Community, 4th ed., London, 1890; P. Vinogradoff, Villainage in England, Oxford, 1892, and The Growth of the Manor, 2d ed., London, 1911; F. W. Maitland, Domesday Book and Beyond, Cambridge, 1897; F. Pollock and F. W. Maitland, The History of English Law before the Time of Edward I, 2d ed., 2 vols., Cambridge, 1898; R. Kötschke, Wirtschaftsgeschichte, 80ff.
Against the attempt of Dopsch to interpret the Capitulare de Villis as a special dispensation for Aquitania, see G. Baist, Vierteljahrschrift f. Sozial- und Wirtschaftsgeschichte VII (1914), 22 ff. and J. Jud and L. Spitzer, Wörter und Sachen, VI (1914/15), 116 ff.
CHAPTER V
General References.—E. Bonnemère, Histoire des paysans depuis la fin du moyen âge jusqu’à nos jours, 4th ed., 3 vols., Paris 1886; G. Vicomte d’Avenel, Histoire économique de la propriété, des salaires, des denrées et de tous les prix en générale 1200–1800, 6 vols., Paris, 1886–1920; References below, on Chapter VI.
CHAPTER VI
Cp. M. Weber, Die römische Agrargeschichte in ihrer Bedeutung für das Staats- und Privatrecht, Stuttgart, 1891; articles, “Agrargeschichte” (by M. Weber) and “Kolonat” (by M. Ros-towzew) in the Handwörterbuch, 3d ed. (with extensive references).
Cp. J. E. Cairnes, The Slave Power, its character, career and probable designs, New York, 1862; H. J. Nieboer, Slavery as an industrial system, The Hague, 1900; B. DuBois, The suppression of the African slave trade, New York, 1904; G. Knapp, Die Landarbeiter in Knechtschaft und Freiheit, 2d ed., Leipsic, 1909, 1 ff.
See references in Note 5 of Chap. III and Note 1 of Chap IV; also the histories by Ashley, Rogers, and Cunningham.
Cp. G. von Below, Territorium und Stadt, Munich and Leipsic, 1900, 1–94; Th. Knapp, Gesammelte Beiträge zur Rechts- und Wirtschaftsgeschichte, etc., Tuebingen, 1902; W. Wittich, in Grundriss der Sozialökonomik, VII (1914) 1 ff., and in the Handwörterbuch, V–3 (1911) 208 ff. (Articles, “Gutsherrschaft”).
Cp. articles, “Bauernbefreiung” (by G. Knapp et al.) in the Hamdwörterbuch II–3, 541 ff, and (by J. C. Fuchs) in the Wörter-buch der Volkswirtschaft, I–2, 365 ff.
Cp. M. Kowalewsky, La France économique et sociale à la veille de la révolution, vol. I, Paris, 1909; E. Bonnemère, Histoire des paysans depuis la fin du moyen âge jusqu’à nos jours, 4th ed., Paris, 1886; H. See, Les classes rurales et le régime domaniale en France, Paris, 1901.
Cp. K. Griinbeig, Die Bauernbefrevung und die Auflösung des gutsherrlich-bäuerlichen Verhältnisses in Böhmen, Mähren und Schlesien, 2 Pts., Leipsic, 1894; Ibid., Studien zur österr. Agrargeschichte, Leipsic, 1901; Emil Kun, Sozialhistorische Bertriige zur Landarbeiterfrage in Ungarn, Jena, 1903.
Cp. G. F. Knapp, Die Bauernbefreiung und der Ursprung der Landarbeiter in den älteren Teilen Preussens, 2 Pits., Leipsic, 1897; and Ibid., Die Landarbeiter in Knechtschaft und Freiheit, 2d ed., Leipsic, 1909.
Cp. W. G. Simkhovitsch, “Bauernbefreiung (Russland),” in the Handwörterbuch der Staatswissenschaften, 3d ed., II, 604 ff., and references there cited.
Cp. Count Rostworowski, Die Entwicklung der bäuerlichen Verhältnisse im Königreich Polen, Jena, 1896; K. v. Gaszczynski, Die Entwickelung der bäuerlichen Setbständigkeit im Königreich Polen, Munich, 1905.
PART TWO
CHAPTER VII
By way of introduction to industrial history, see the works of W. J. Ashley, H. Boos, H. deB. Gibbins, G. Schmoller (Volkswirtschaftslehre, Vol. I), Karl Bücher, N. S. B. Gras, A. P. Usher.
CHAPTER VIII
Cp. B. H. Baden-Powell, The Land Systems of British India, 3 vols., Oxford, 1892, and The Indian Empire, 4 vols., Oxford, 1908–09; also Max Weber, Ges. Aufsätze zur Religionssoziologie, II, 1 ff., 91 ff., and passim.
Max Weber, Die römische Agrargeschichte in ihrer Bedeutung für das Staats- und Privatrecht, Stuttgart, 1891.
CHAPTER IX
On guild history see M. Chwostoff, Sketches on the Organization of Industry and Trade in Greek and Roman Egypt, Kazan, 1914; I. P. Waltzing, Etudes historiques sur les corporations pro-fessionelles chez les Romains, Brussels, 1895–1900; G. von Schön-berg, “Zur wirtschaftlichen Bedeutung des deutschen Zunftgewerbes im Mittelalter,” in Jahrbücher für Nationalökonomie und Statistik, IX (1868); K. Th. von Inama-Sternegg, Deutsche Wirtschaftsgeschichte, 3. Teil, Leipsic, 1901; also works on English industrial history.
CHAPTER X
Schmoller was one of the leading advocates of this theory; see his Die Strassburger Tucher- und Weberzunft, Strassburg, 1879–81.
CHAPTER XI
General References.—Schmoller, reference in Note on Chap. X; A. Abram, Social England in the 15th Century, London, 1909, 1–21, 117–130; G. Unwin, Industrial Organization in the 16th and 17th Centuries, London, 1904; É. Martin-Saint-Léon, Histoire des corporations de métiers, 2d ed., Paris, 1909; H. Hauser, Ouvriers du temps passé, 2d ed., Paris, 1906.
CHAPTER XII
General References.—E. Levasseur, Histoire des classes ou-vrières en France, 2d ed., 2 vols., Paris, 1900–1901 (Summary in English, Agnes Bergeland, History of the Working Class in France, Chicago, 1918.); R. W. C. Taylor, Introdnction to a History of the Factory System, London, 1886; J. E. Thorald Rogers, Six Centuries of Work and Wages, 2d ed., London, 1912; W. Sombart, Der moderne Kapitalismus, 4th ed., 2. Bd., 2 Hlbbd., Munich and Leipsic, 1921.
CHAPTER XIII
General References.—I. B. Mispoulet, Le régime des mines à l’époque romaine et au moyen-âge, Paris, 1908; O. Hué, Die Bergarbeiter, Stuttgart, 1910.
PART THREE
CHAPTER XIV
General References.—Ch. Letourneau, L’évolution du commerce dans les diverses races humaines, Paris, 1897; E. Levasseur, Histoire du commerce de la France, 2 parts, Paris, 1911–12; H. Pirenne, “Villes, marchés et marchands au moyen-âge,” in Revue historique LXVII (1898); History of Domestic and Foreign Commerce of the United States, 2 vols., Washington, 1915 (with an exhaustive bibliography of American economic history).
CHAPTER XV
General References.—Articles “Verkehrsmittle und -wege,” and “Verkehrswesen im deutschen Mittelalter,” in Handwörterbuch der Staatswissenschaften; O. T. Mason, Primitive Travel and Transportation, New York, 1897; W. L. Lindsay, History of Merchant Shipping and of Ancient Commerce, 4 vols., London, 1874–1876.
CHAPTER XVI
See the papers of G. von Below: “Grosshändler und Klein-händler im deutschen Mittelalter”; über Theorien der wirtschaftlichen Entwieklung der Völker”; and, “Der Untergang der mittelalterlichen Stadtwirtschaft,”—all in the volume, Probleme der Wirtschaftsgeschichte, Tuebingen, 1917.
Concerning the organization of commerce in medieval England, see E. Lipson, An Introduction to the Economic History of England, vol. I, London, 1915; also, N. S. B. Gras, Evolution of the Englisic Corn Market from the 12th to the 18th Century, Cambridge, (Mass.), 1915; and references in these works.
CHAPTER XVIII
General References.—Chas. Gross, The Gild Merchant, 2 vols., Oxford, 1890; Lipson, see Note 2 of Chap. XVI; H. B. Morse, The Guilds of China, London, 1909.—On India, see M. Weber, Gesammelte Aufsätze zur Religionssoziologie, II, 84 ff., and the works of W. Hopkins there referred to.—W. E. Lingelbach, The Merchant Adventurers of England, Philadelphia, 1902.
Through this requirement the Hanse aroused the persistent antagonism of Danzig, which did not wish to have its shipbuilding industry placed at a disadvantage.
CHAPTER XIX
General References.—W. Ridgeway, The Origin of Metallic Currency and Weight Standards, Cambridge, (Eng.), 1892; W. A. Shaw, The History of Currency, 1252–1894, London, 1895; Articles by W. Lexis, in the Handwörterbuch, on “Gold,” “Währungsfrage,” “Silberwährung,” etc.; (Cp. Report of Director of the U. S. Mint, 1896, pp. 266–80 and ff.—Tr.) J. L. Laughlin, Principles of Money, New York and London, 1903; W. W. Carlile, Evolution of Modern Money, London, 1901.
See the estimates, which are in fair agreement, by Soetbeer (in Petermann’s Geographischen Mitteilungen, Ergänzungsband, 1879, p. 54) and W. Lexis (in Jahrbücher für Nationalökonomie und Statistik XXXIV (1880), pp. 361 ff.). The estimates of F. De Laiglesias, however (in Los caudales de India en la primera metad del siglo XVII, Madrid, 1904), lead to a result almost fifty-fold different, in the downward direction.
CHAPTER XX
General References.—History of the Banking of All Nations, London, 1896; R. Ehrenberg, Das Zeitalter der Fugger, 2 vols., Jena, 1896; A. Andreades, History of the Bank of England (Trans. H. S. Foxwell, London, 1909); References in the Handwörterbuch der Staatswissenschaften, 3d ed., II, 359 f., 368 f.
CHAPTER XXI
Moreover, this view is not unknown to the unworldly love doctrine of the earliest Christians. The later prohibition of interest by the Church rested on Luke 6, 35; but according to A. Merx there was a misreading of the text. (Die vier kanonischen Evangelien nach ihrem ältesten bekannten Texte, II 2, I, 223 ff.) This misreading, he says, passed into the Vulgate on the authority of Clement of Alexandria, and became the basis of the Church’s later position.
PART FOUR
General References on Part Four.—J. A. Hobson, Evolution of Modern Capitalism, 2d ed., London, 1906; L. Brentano, Die Anfänge des modernen Kapitalismus, 4th ed., 2 vols., Munich and Leipsic, 1922; G. Schmoller, “Die geschichtliche Entwicklung der Unternehmung,” Jahrbuch für Gesetzgebung, Verwaltung und Volkswirtschaft, XIV–XVII (1890–1893); A. Toynbee, Lectures on the Industrial Revolution of the 18th Century in England, London, 1884; W. Sombart, Die deutsche Volkswirtschaft im 19. Jahrhundert, 3d ed., Berlin, 1913.
CHAPTER XXIII
General References.—W. Sombart, Der Moderne Kapitalismus, Munich and Leipsic, 1916; J. Strieder, Studien zur kapitalistischen Organisationsform, Kartelle, Monopole und Aktiengesellschaf-ten im Mittelalter und zu Beginn der Neuzeit, Munich and Leipsic, 1914; Julius Klein, The Mesta. A Study in Spanish Economic History, 1273–1836, Cambridge (Mass.), 1920; J. and S. Davis, Essays in the earlier history of American corporations, 2 vols., Cambridge (Mass.), 1917; G. Cawston and A. H. Keane, Early Chartered Companies, London, 1896; R. Muir, The Making of British India, 1756 to 1858, Manchester, 1915; P. Bonnassieux, Les grandes companies de commerce, Paris, 1892.
CHAPTER XXIV
General References.—W. R. Scott, The Constitution and Finance of English, Scottish and Irish Joint Stock Companies to 1720, 3 vols., Cambridge (Eng.) 1910–1912; A. Aftalion, Les crises péri-odiques de surproduction et leur retour p6riodique en France, en Angleterre et aux Etats-Unis, Paris, 1913; M. Bouniatian, Geschichte der Handelskrisen in England, Munich, 1908; N. A. Brisco, The Economic Policy of Robert Walpole, New York, 1907.
CHAPTER XXV
General References.—Sombart, Der moderne Kapitalismus, II, 429ff.; Articles “Börsenwesen” (by R. Ehrenberg) and “Märkte und Messen” (by K. Rathgen ) in the Handwörterbuch, 3d ed., vols. III and IV; Article “Post,” (by P. D. Fischer and M. Aschenborn), Ibid., VI–3; J. C. Hemmeon, History of the British Post Office, Cambridge (Mass.), 1912; Article “Zeitungen,” by L. Salomon, Handwörterbuch, 3d ed., vol. VIII.
CHAPTER XXVI
General References.—H. Merivale, Lectures on Colonisation and Colonies, 2d ed., London, 1861; H. E. Morris, History of Colonisation from Earliest Times to the Present Day, 2 vols., London, 1904; G. L. Beer, The Old Colonial System, 1600–1754, 2 vols., New York, 1912; A. Sartorius von Waltershausen, Die Arbeitsver-fassung der englischen Kolonien in Nordamerika, Strassburg, 1894; St. B. Weeks, The Southern Quakers and Slavery, Baltimore, 1898.
A parallel is found in the fact that the negroes long ago showed themselves unsuitable for factory work and the operation of machines; they have not seldom sunk into a cataleptic sleep. Here is one case in economic history where tangible racial distinctions are present.
The principal supporters of the slave trade were originally the Arabs, who have maintained their position to the present in Africa. In the middle ages the Jews and the Genoese divided the business; they were followed by the Portuguese, the French, sand finally the English.
CHAPTER XXVII
General References.—A. Riedler, Über die geschichtliche und Zukünftige Bedeutung der Technik, Berlin, 1900; L. Beck, Geschichte des Eisens, 5 vols., Brunswick, 1884–1903; Chas. Babbage, On the Economy of Machinery and Manufactures, London, 1832; G. von Schulze-Gaevernitz, Der Grossbetrieb, ein Wirtschaftlicher und sozialer Fortschritt, Leipsic, 1892; Survey in Sombart, Der moderne Kapitalismus, I, 481 ff. and II, 609 ff.; L. Darmataedter, Handbuch. zur Geschichte der Naturwissenschaften und Technik, Berlin, 1908.
On the other hand the exploitative mining out of the underground wealth must have a limit in time; the age of iron cannot last over a thousand years at most.
CHAPTER XXVIII
General References.—M. Weber, Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft, Tuebingen, 1922, pp. 513 ff.; N. D. Fustel de Coulanges, La cité antique, Paris, 1864.
Otherwise Peking would have to be regarded as a “city” from the beginning, and at a time when nothing of the nature of a city existed in Europe. Officially, however, it is called “the five places,” and is administratively handled in parts as five large villages; hence there are no “citizens” of Peking.
In contrast, the officials and princes in Japan resided in castles down to the modernization; places were distinguished according to size.
The Indian armies, even in the oldest Greek reports from the time of Alexander the Great, had tactical divisions and organization, but also exemplified the combat between heroes. In the armies of the Grand Mogul, the knights who equipped themselves retained their place alongside the warriors enlisted and equipped by the war-lord, and enjoyed a higher social esteem.
The parallelism with the German revolution of 1918 stands out; the soldiers’ councils demanded power to nullify judicial decisions.
CHAPTER XXIX
Cp. M. Weber, Gesammelte Aufsätze zur Religionsaoziologie, Tuebingen, 1920, I, 276 ff., and works there referred to.
On Mercantilism, see Article, “Merkantilsystem” in the Handwörterbuch, 3d ed., VI, 650 ff., and the illuminating article, “Balance of Trade” etc. in Palgrave, Dictionary of Political Economy, 3 vols., London, 1895; also, Adam Smith, Wealth of Nations, Book IV; G. Schmoller, The Mercantile System (Eng. Trans. in Ashley’s Economic Classics); W. Sombart, Der Bourgeois, Munich and Leipsic, 1913; P. Clement, Histoire du système protecteur en France, Paris, 1854; A. P. Usher, History of the Grain Trade in France, 1400–1710, Cambridge (Mass.), 1913.
CHAPTER XXX
As soon as the Mandarins realized the chances for gain open to them, these difficulties suddenly ceased to be insuperable; today they are the leading stockholders in the railways. In the long run, no religious-ethical conviction is capable of barring the way to the entry of capitalism, when it stands in full armor before the gate; but the fact that it is able to leap over magical barriers does not prove that genuine capitalism could have originated in circumstances where magic played such a role.
In a general way, though with necessary reservations, the contrast may be formulated by saying that Jewish capitalism was speculative pariah-capitalism, while Puritan capitalism consisted in the organization of citizen labor. Cp. M. Weber, Gesammelte Aufsätze zur Religionssoziologie, I, 181 ff., Note 2.
Cp. also E. Troeltsch, Die Soziallehren der Christlichen Kirchen und Gruppen, 2 vols., Tuebingen, 1913 (reprinted 1919). Among the opponents of the above conceptions of Max Weber regarding the significance of Calvinism should be mentioned L. Brentano (Die Anfänge des modernen Kapitalismus, Munich, 1916, 117 ff.) and G. Brodnitz (Englische Wirtschaftsgeschichte, I, 282 ff.). (Another exposition in English of Weber’s theories in this field may be found in two articles by P. T. Forsyth, Calvinism and Capitalism,” Contemporary Review, 1910. Cp. also R. H. Tawney, Religion and the Rise of Capitalism, London and New York, 1926.—Tr.
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